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The  NATIONAL 

GEOGRAPHIC 
MAGAZINE 

DECEMBER,  1918 
CONTENTS 

THE  RACES  OF  EUROPE 

An  Account  Which  Removes  the  Padlock  of  Techni- 
cality from  the  Absorbing  Story  of  the  Mixture 
of  Peoples  in  the  .Aost  Densely 
Populated  Continent 


EDWIN  A.  GROS  .'ENOR,  L.  H.  D..  LL.  D. 

■With  a  Map  of  Europe  and  Adjoining  Portions  of  Asia  and  Africa 
in  19  Colors  (Size,  20  y  24  Inches),  Together  with  62  Illus- 
trations of  Racial  Types,  a  Relief  Map  of  Europe, 
and  a  Political  Map  of  Germany 

PUBLISHED    BY  THE 

NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC  SOCIETY 

HUBBaRD  memorial  HALL 
WASHINGTON,  D.C. 


A>ARopo\od^M     ^^^ 


T^ 


JINTHROPOLOQY 

Lin-'"  Y 


Vol.  XXXIV,  No.  6 


WASHINGTON 


ANTHR0POLO&ir 

December,  W?f 


TM 


ATEOMAL.  :- 
GEOGIMPMIIC 
.GAZDNE 


THE    RACES    OF  EUROPE 

The  Graphic  Epitome  of  a  Never-ceasing  Human  Drama. 

The  Aspirations,  Failures,  Achievements,  and 

Conflicts  of  the  Polyglot  People  of  the 

Most  Densely  Populated  Continent 

By  Edwin  A.  Grosvenor,  L.  H.  D.,   LL.  D. 

President  United  Chapters,  Phi  Beta  Kappa,  and  Recently  Professor  of  Modern   Government  and 
International  I^aw  in  Amherst  College 

Dr.  Grosvenor,  the  author  of  this  article,  has  devoted  fifty  years  to  the  study 
of  the  racial  conditions  of  Europe.  Twenty  years  as  Professor  of  History  in 
Robert  College,  at  Constantinople,  gave  him  unusual  opportunity  to  observe  inten- 
sively the  subject  zvith  zvhich  he  deals,  for  noivhere  else  in  the  ivorld  has  the  racial 
tide  ebbed  and  flowed  in  such  remarkable  fashion  as  in  the  Balkans,  and  noidicre 
else  has  the  teacher  of  history  found  more  need  for  an  intimate  knozvledge  of  his 
subject.  There  is  not  a  country  in  Europe  zvhich  he  has  not  visited  and  among 
Zi'hose  people  he  has  not  personal  acquaintances  and  friends.  He  is  the  author  of 
"Constantinople,"  tzvo  volumes;  "Contemporary  History,"  "The  Permanence  of 
the  Greek  Type,"  of  some  three  hundred  articles  on  Eastern  subjects  in  various 
cyclopedias,  zvas  Editor  of  the  Reference  History  of  the  World  in  Webster's 
International  Dictionary  (last  edition),  and  has  translated,  zvith  revision,  Duruy's 
"History  of  Modern  Times"  and  "History  of  the  World"  from  the  French  and 
"Andronike"  (the  most  popular  Greek  novel)  from  the  modern  Greek. 


EUROPE  is  the  smallest,  except  one, 
of  the  six  continents.  Of  about 
the  same  size  as  Canada  or  Brazil, 
one  might  question,  regarding  merely  ter- 
ritorial extent,  whether  Europe  should  be 
called  a  continent  at  all.  Siberia  exceeds 
it  by  more  than  a  million  square  miles. 
On  the  map  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere 
it  appears  insignificant.  It  is  dwarfed 
on  the  south  by  the  ponderous  bulk  of 
Africa,  while  Asia,  to  which  it  clings, 
thrusts  it  disdainfully  away  toward  the 
northwest. 


Were  it  attached  to  Asia  by  a  distinct 
isthmus,  as  is  Africa  or  as  are  North 
and  South  America  to  each  other,  it 
would,  as  a  well  outlined  peninsula,  pos- 
sess an  easily  recognized  existence  of  its 
own. 

Instead,  an  indefinite  border  land, 
more  than  two  thousand  miles  in  length, 
makes  it  impossible  to  tell  where  Asia 
ends  and  Europe  begins.  The  interjec- 
tion of  the  Caspian  Sea  breaks  this  bor- 
der-land into  two  great  stretches,  one 
between  the  Arctic  and  the  Caspian,  and 


85581'4 


O  Oniial.l  Mcl.cish 

Tin;    liJCK.NJiSlC    OlilCiaANU:     .SVVITZKKLAMJ MUUMAINS     AKK     nature's     THWI.KING 

SIGN-POSTS   DIRECTING    THROUGH    TIIIv    AGES    THE    MIGRATIONS 
or  RESTLESS  RACES 

"TIic  various  routes  of  migration  into  Europe,  the  later  wanderinjis  of  the  imniiKrants, 
and  their  constant  rclf)cations  may  l)c  directly  traced  to  geojirapliie  causes,  of  wliicii  the 
mountain  system,  the  rivers,  and  plains  had  a  determinative  part.  The  hacklione  and  domi- 
nant factor  of  the  continent  is  the  Alps''   (see  page  448  and  also  map  on  page  506). 


442 


THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


443 


one  between  the  mountains  of  the  Cau- 
casus and  the  Black  Sea. 

THE  ORIGIN  OF  THE   NAME  EUROPE 

On  the  map  Europe  is  only  an  exten- 
sion or  prolongation  of  Asia;  but  to  this 
prolongation  its  unicjue  physical  features 
and  its  resultant  history  have  given  a 
distinct  preeminence. 

Between  Europe  and  Asia  there  is  no 
natural  boundary ;  neither  does  any  offi- 
cial line  of  demarcation  exist.  The 
Russians  sometimes  imagine  such  a  line 
in  the  "crest  of  the  Urals."  But  in  the 
wide  region  over  which  the  broad,  low- 
Urals  spread,  no  crest  ever  has  been  or 
can  be  traced.  jNIoreover,  the  Urals  them- 
selves traverse  only  a  part  of  the  space 
which  subtends  Europe  from  Asia.  Be- 
cause of  the  arbitrary  or  undetermiifed 
nature  of  that  eastern  boundary,  emi- 
nent authorities  vary  in  their  estimate  of 
the  total  area  of  Europe  by  several  hun- 
dred thousand  square  miles. 

The  name  Europe  has  been  in  use  for 
more  than  twenty-five  hundred  years. 
Its  origin  and  meaning  are  unknown. 
Perhaps  it  is  derived,  as  the  ancients  be- 
lieved, from  the  fair  maiden  Europa,  be- 
loved of  Jupiter.  Perhaps  it  comes  from 
the  word  irib  or  crcb,  found  on  Assyrian 
monuments  and  supposed  to  mean  dark- 
ness, or  the  setting  sun,  in  distinction 
from  asit,  found  on  the  same  monuments 
and  supposed  to  mean  the  rising  sun,  or 
Asia.  Let  us  agree,  however,  with  He- 
rodotus who  naively  confesses  that  "no 
mortal  can  ever  hope  to  find  out  the  true 
meaning  of  this  word  inherited  from  the 
forefathers." 

WHY  Europe's  races  are  progressive 

Europe  does  not  equal  one-fourteenth 
of  the  land  surface  and  is  less  than  one- 
fiftieth  of  the  entire  surface  of  the  globe ; 
yet  upon  it  dwell  450,000,000  human 
l)eings,  more  than  a  fourth  of  all  man- 
kind. Nor  are  all  Europeans  found  in 
Europe.  They  and  their  children  have 
occupied  and  populated  the  whole  West- 
ern Hemisphere,  of  which  they  were  the 
discoverers.  They  have  partitioned  and 
subdued  to  themselves  nearly  the  whole 
■of  Africa.     With  the  exception  of  China 


and  Japan,  they  control  all  Asia  and  all 
the  islands  of  all  the  seas.  During  the 
last  twenty-five  centuries,  from  them  as 
from  a  focus  have  radiated  the  art  and 
science  and  thought  of  the  world. 

How  has  this  stupendous  result  been  • 
brought    about?      What    potent    causes 
have  produced  such  practical  monopoly 
of  universal  leadership? 

That  the  early  ancestors  of  the  present 
European  peoples  were  more  highly  en- 
dowed than  their  kindred  or  contempo- 
raries or  possessed  greater  capacity  for 
development,  there  is  no  reason  to  be- 
lieve. 

In  the  physical  advantages  Europe 
possesses  are  revealed  the  causes  which 
have  given  to  Europeans  and  the  de- 
scendants of  Europeans  their  unques- 
tioned superiority. 

Almost  the  whole  of  Europe  is  situ- 
ated in  the  northern  half  of  the  North 
Temperate  Zone.  Its  extreme  northern 
point,  the  North  Cape,  is  nineteen  de- 
grees from  the  Pole.  Tarifa,  its  extreme 
southern  point,  is  thirty-six  degrees  from 
the  Equator. 

Nowhere,  except  in  the  farthest  boreal 
limits,  does  excessive  cold  stunt  body 
and  mind.  Nowhere  does  excessive  and 
continued  heat  sap  energy  and  enervate 
the  will.  No  spontaneous  prodigality  of 
Nature  removes  the  necessity  of  exertion 
and  induces  sloth. 

Plere,  where  the  air  invigorates,  man 
must  labor  if  he  would  survive.  The  re- 
wards of  labor  are  reasonably  sure,  but 
something  more  is  necessary  than  to  sat- 
isfy one  day's  needs.  The  periodic  suc- 
cession, "the  rhythmic  swing,"  of  the 
seasons,  where  winter  invariably  follows 
summer,  compels  him  to  take  thought  and 
make  some  provision  of  food,  shelter, 
and  clothing  for  the  days  to  come.  Even 
slight  labor  and  little  forethought,  neithef 
of  which  can  be  escaped,  force  him  to- 
ward emergence  from  the  primitive  and 
purely  animal  state  toward  higher  exist- 
ence. 

Aluch  thus  far  said  would  apply  to  the 
parallel  region  of  North  America  occu- 
pied by  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  the 
United  States.  It  applies  to  no  other 
portion  of  the  globe.     The  greater  part 


THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


44r 


of  Africa  and  South  America  is  included 
in  the  Torrid  Zone.  The  vast  broken 
plateau  of  continental  Asia  is  girdled 
west,  south,  and  east  by  hills  or  moun- 
tains which  shut  out  the  influence  of  the 
sea. 

The  climate  of  western  Europe  is  de- 
termined by  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  mighti- 
est, most  rapid  and  most  beneficent  of 
ocean  currents.  Its  heated  mass,  de- 
flected eastward  by  the  Banks  of  New- 
foundland, reaches  the  shores  of  Europe, 
creating  on  its  way  the  exhaustless  fish- 
eries of  the  North  Sea.  Its  warmth 
breaks  the  force  of  the  winter  and  keeps 
the  harbors  ice-free  in  the  Norwegian 
fiords.  It  gives  to  Liverpool  a  milder 
climate  than  that  of  Washington,  a  thou- 
sand miles  farther  south,  and  in  the 
British  Islands,  due  east  of  Labrador, 
causes  grass  to  grow  throughout  the 
year.* 

As  no  formidable  barrier  to  breezes 
from  the  sea  is  interposed,  the  prevaihng 
wihds  of  Europe,  loaded  with  ocean 
moisture,  spread  hundreds  of  miles  in- 
land, relieving  the  excesses  of  the  sea- 
sons and  fertilizing  the  soil. 

EUROPI^'S  VAST  COAST-LINE 
The  coast-line  of  Europe  is  remark- 
able for  its  length  and  its  availability. 
South  America  is  twice  and  Africa  three 
times  as  large,  and  yet,  although  Europe 
is  landlocked  on  its  eastern  or  Asiatic 
side,  it  has  a  longer  coast-line  than  that 
of  those  two  continents  combined.  North 
America  has  double  the  area  of  Europe. 
But,  except  for  what  stretches  along  the 
inhospitable  Arctic,  the  sea  front  of  the 
two  is  nearly  the  same. 

Europe  is  intersected  by  numerous 
vast,  narrow,  half-inland  gulfs  and  seas 
which  endlessly  break  its  contour  and 
multiply  its  length. 

No  other  body  of  water  rivals  the  in- 
comparable sea  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  Europe,  the  Mediterranean. 
Its  general  direction  is  east  and  west  for 
nearly  2,200  miles,  and  it  is  wholly  in- 
cluded in  the  southern,  more  genial,  part 

*  See  also,  in  the  National  Geographic 
Magazine,  "The  Gulf  Stream,"  by  Rear  Ad- 
miral John  E.  Pillsbury  (August,  1912). 


of  the  Temperate  Zone.  Bathing  the 
shores  of  all  the  continents  of  the  old 
world,  its  area  of  900,000  square  miles 
makes  it  seem  like  an  inland  ocean.  Two 
great  peninsulas  cut  half  way  across,  one 
of  them  more  than  seven  hundred  miles 
in  length. 

A  succession  of  great  islands  at  almost 
equal  distances  follow  one  another  along 
a  line  rudely  parallel  to  its  general  direc- 
tion. Innumerable  other  islands  dot  its 
main  expanse  and  fringe  its  shores. 
Hence  results  a  maze  of  connecting  seas, 
which  abound  in  deep,  spacious,  tideless 
harbors  to  invite  the  enterprise  of  the 
merchant  and  to  provide  refuge  from  the 
tempest. 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  .^GEAX 

Of  all  those  interconnecting  seas  the 
.'Egean  or  Archipelago  was  to  exert  the 
earliest  and  most  abiding  influence.  No- 
where else  did  the  ancient  world  afford 
a  like  training  school  for  seamanship. 
The  dwellers  on  the  peninsular  shores  of 
Greece  and  Asia  Minor  were  impelled  by 
the  circumstances  of  their  lot  to  venture 
upon,  gradually  to  understand,  and  finally 
to  master  the  sea.  And  the  sea  gave 
back  something  greater  than  mere  ma- 
terial returns. 

Inevitably  the  old  land  kingdom^. 
Egypt,  Assyria,  Persia,  India,  submerged 
the  individual  in  the  mass.  As  inevita- 
bly, in  the  men  who  singly  or  in  groups 
of  twos  or  threes  wrestled  with  and  over- 
came the  sea,  the  sense  of  personal  in- 
dependence was  roused.  This  was  both 
achievement  and  revelation.  It  was  the 
impelling  motive  at  Marathon  and  in  all 
the  struggles  for  freedom  since  down 
to  the  present  day. 

Classic  Greece  was  the  creation  of  the 
Mediterranean.  Without  the  :\Iediter- 
ranean  there  would  have  been  no  Rome, 
of  whose  State  it  was  at  once  the  heart 
and  the  bond  of  union.  Nor  has  its  part 
in  the  world  been  less  preeminent 
through  the  middle  ages  down  to  modern 
times.  Until  the  sixteenth  century  the 
shifting  capital  of  the  world  was  located 
in  some  one  of  its  three  great  peninsula? 
Of  all  these  causes  which  have  given  to 


4^6 


THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


447 


Europeans  their  ascendency  over  men, 
none  has  been  more  powerful  than  the 
fact  that  Europe  rises  like  a  pyramid 
from  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

THE    TASK    OF    RACE    CLASSIFICATION    IS 
MOST    PERPLEXING 

In  discussing  the  races  of  Europe  we 
take  two  things  for  granted :  ( i )  that 
all  Europeans  are  descended  from  one 
original  stock;  (2)  that  the  remote  an- 
cestors of  the  present  inhabitants  of 
Europe  came  from  Asia.  We  must 
acknowledge  that  many  eminent  scholars 
have  controverted  these  assumptions  and 
that  neither  has  been  absolutely  proved, 
but  learned  opinion  inclines  more  and 
more  to  recognition  of  their  truth. 

A  race  is  a  great  division  of  mankind, 
having  in  common  certain  distinguishing- 
peculiarities  and  thus  forming  a  com- 
prehensive class,  apparently  derived 
from  a  distinct  primitive  source. 

Classification  into  races  of  the  1,700,- 
000,000  human  beings  who  populate  the 
earth  may  seem  easy.  A  European,  a 
Negro,  and  a  Chinaman  differentiate 
themselves  at  a  glance.  Nevertheless, 
every  attempt  at  classification  has  shown 
it  to  be  a  most  difficult  and  perplexing 
task.  Most  classifications,  especially  of 
minor  races,  have  not  been  comprehen- 
sive or  have  involved  contradictions. 

During  the  last  two  hundred  years 
many  such  attempts  have  been  made. 
The  color  of  the  skin,  the  color  and  di- 
rection of  the  eyes,  the  color  and  texture 
of  the  hair,  some  anatomical  character- 
istic such  as  the  aspect  of  the  nose  or  the 
length  of  the  limbs  in  proportion  to  the 
trunk,  peculiarities  of  various  parts  of 
the  skeleton,  thickness  or  thinness  of  the 
skull,  capacity  of  the  cranium  as  meas- 
ured by  the  quantity  of  sand  or  shot  re- 
quired to  fill  it,  the  horizontal  circum- 
ference of  the  skull,  the  angle  made  by 
the  intersection  of  the  axis  of  the  face 
with  the  axis  of  the  skull  (commonly 
called  the  facial  angle),  the  cephalic  in- 
dex, the  relative  length,  breadth,  and 
height  of  the  skull,  have  been  among  the 
tests  employed  to  determine  race.  Lan- 
guage has  generally  been  an  inseparable 


part  of  the  test  and  often  the  final  deci- 
sion has  been  based  upon  it. 

Tireless  scholars  have  sought  to 
demonstrate  and  apply  the  comprehen- 
sive accuracy  of  some  one  or  other  of 
these  tests.  Their  researches  have  re- 
vealed how  impossible  it  is  to  indicate 
essential  dififerences  among  the  sons  of 
men.  Efiforts  to  resolve  the  mass  of 
humanity  into  component  parts  have  had 
as  principal  result  the  finding  out  how 
homogeneous  mankind  is. 

Nevertheless,  in  each  of  those  tests 
there  is  a  certain  degree  of  truth  and  of 
applicability.  Among  the  most  recent 
and  at  present  the  most  popular  is  the 
cephalic  index.  This  is  simply,  "The 
figures  that  express  the  ratio  of  the 
greatest  breadth  to  the  greatest  length 
of  the  skull,  the  latter  being  taken  as 
one  hundred."  If  the  proportion  is  above 
80  to  TOO,  the  term  is  brachycephalic, 
short-headed,  and  hence  round-headed. 
If  below  80  to  100,  it  is  dolichocephalic, 
long-headed. 

THE    FIVE   GREAT   GROUPS   OF   RACES 

The  number  of  distinct  human  groups 
or  races  is  variously  estimated  from  the 
three,  Japhetic,  Semitic  and  Hamitic  of 
the  Bible,  or  the  three,  Caucasian,  ^lon- 
gol,  and  Negro,  of  Cuvier,  to  the  eleven 
of  Pickering  and  the  sixteen  of  Desmou- 
lins.  The  estimate  in  1781  by  Dr.  Blu- 
menbach,  the  father  of  anthropology,  has 
best  withstood  the  attacks  of  time.  He 
finds  five  races,  Caucasian,  Mongolian, 
Ethiopian,  American,  and  Malay. 

It  is  said  that,  when  in  doubt  how  to 
name  the  first  race,  a  finely  typical  skull 
was  brought  him  from  the  Caucasus  and 
hence  came  the  idea  of  calling  the  race 
Caucasian.  In  the  name  is  no  sugges- 
tion that  the  race  originated  in  or  had 
any  connection  with  the  Caucasus. 

Bouillet  indicates  the  physical  charac- 
teristics oi  the  Caucasian  as,  "Head  oval ; 
face  not  projecting,  lips  thin,  eyes  hori- 
zontal ;  color  white  :  hair  long  and  glossy  ; 
beard  abundant ;  intellectual  superiority." 
Of  the  INIongolian  he  says,  "Cheek-bones 
prominent ;  eyelids  drawn  toward  the 
temples ;  skull  rounded ;  face  flat ;  nose 
depressed,  ears  long  and  protruding,  skin 


448 


THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC  MAGAZINE 


yellow  and  sometimes  brown,  beard 
scanty,  hair  straight  and  black." 

The  other  three  races  do  not  concern 
us,  as  they  have  in  no  way  affected  the 
history  of  Europe  or  contributed  to  its 
life. 

The  Caucasians  and  Mongolians  are 
further  divided  into  branches  or  groups, 
distinguished  by  difference  in  language 
and  by  minor  physical  peculiarities. 

Two  main  divisions  are  at  once  recog- 
nized among  the  Caucasians,  designated 
as  the  Indo-European  or  Japhetic  and 
the  Syro-Arab  or  Semitic.  Indo-Euro- 
pean indicates  the  belief  that  Europeans 
came  from  the  basin  of  the  Indus.  Syro- 
Arab  means,  originating  in  Syria  and 
Arabia. 

THE  IXDO-EUROPE.\X  FAMILY 

The  Indo-European  includes  eight 
branches  or  groups.  These  are :  in  Asia, 
the  Aryas  or  Hindus  of  India,  the  Per- 
sians and  the  Armenians,  the  last  two 
being  often  termed  Iranians  from  the 
great  plateau  of  Iran  where  they  had 
their  origin;  in  Euippe,  the  Greeks, 
Latins,  Celts,  Teutons,  or  Germans,  and 
Slavs. 

Common  usage  treats  these  groups  as 
races,  so  properly  we  speak  of  the  Celtic 
race  or  the  Slavic  race  or  of  the  races  of 
Europe.  Because  of  the  intimate  rela- 
tions of  the  Greeks  and  Latins  and  the 
cognate  nearness  of  their  languages,  the 
two  are  denoted  as  of  the  Greco-Latin 
race.  German  and  Teuton  are  inter- 
changeable, being  synonymous  terms. 

The  great  majority  oi  the  peoples  who 
have  invaded  Europe  and  whose  de- 
scendants are  now  settled  there  Ijelong 
to  the  Indo-European  family.  In  addi- 
tion, about  30,000.000  persons,  or  one- 
fifteenth  of  the  inhabitants  of  Europe, 
are  Finno-Ugrians  and  Turks,  members 
of  the  Ural-Altaic  branch  of  the  Mon- 
golian family.  All  the  rest,  except  the 
Jews,  Maltese,  and  Saracens  (Syro- 
Arab),  anfl  possibly  except  the  ]^as(|ues. 
are  of  Indo-F.uropean  stock. 

Ural- Altaian  comprehends  peoples, 
found  between  the  Altai  and  Ural  moun- 
tains. Finno-Ugrian  is  specific  of  a 
western   grou[)   of    Ural- Altaians.      Tin- 


term  is  derived  from  Finn  and  Ugra,  the 
region  on  both  sides  of  the  Urals. 

GEOGRAPHIC    CONDITIONS    DETERMIXIC 
R.\CE    MIGRATIONS 

The  various  routes  of  migration  into 
Europe,  the  later  wanderings  of  the  im- 
migrants, and  their  constant  relocations, 
may  be  directly  traced  to  geographic 
causes,  of  which  the  mountain  system, 
the  rivers  and  plains  had  a  determinative 
part  (see  map,  page  506). 

The  backbone  and  dominant  factor  of 
the  continent  is  the  Alps.  The  Pyrenees 
and  the  rugged  Scandinavian  plateau 
stand  isolated  and  apart.  But  the  Ceven- 
nes,  the  Jura,  the  \'osges,  the  Apennines, 
the  tri-lateral  of  Bohemia,  the  Carpa- 
thians, the  Balkans,  and  the  gigantic 
masses  of  ^Montenegro,  Albania,  and 
Greece,  are  outspurs  of  the  Alps.  West, 
south,  and  southeast  their  foothills  touch 
the  seas. 

Though  the  Alps  loom  across  the  con- 
tinent like  a  barrier,  they  are  less  diffi- 
cult to  traverse  than  the  Pyrenees.  ^lore 
than  a  dozen  Alpine  passes  were  familiar 
to  the  military  expeditions  of  the  Ro- 
mans. A  pass  is  not  a  gorge  but  a  way, 
resulting  from  depressions  in  the  great 
range  to  which  deep-cut  valleys  lead 
from  plains.  Over  those  depressions 
poured  not  only  the  troops  of  Hannibal 
and  Napoleon  but  numerous  invaders 
both  before  and  after  Julius  Caesar. 

In  the  Alps  are  the  fountain  heads  of 
the  Rhone.  Rhine,  and  Po.  and  in  the 
outspurs  rise  the  Loire.  Seine,  Meuse, 
Elbe.  Oder.  X'istula.  and  Danube.  These 
rivers  have  each  limited  or  determined 
the  wanderings  of  peoples,  the  march  of 
armies,  and  the  boundaries  of  States. 
The  Danube  was  a  natural  and  inevi- 
tal)le  westward  roadway  of  pastoral 
peoples  from  .Asia. 

TIIIv    Al.l'S,     Till-:     SIGN-POST     OF    EUROPK's 
RACKS 

.\  line  drawn  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Truth  to  the  mouth  of  the  Niemen,  and 
thence  i)rolonged  through  the  Baltic  and 
Gulf  of  i'.othnia  to  the  sources  of  the 
Toriie  I'.lf.  gives  an  approximation  of 
real  or  historic  Europe's  eastern  frontier 


THS   MASTER   ARTIST    IMMORTALIZES    ON    CANVAS    THE    SPIRITUALIZED    FEATURES    OI? 
THE   GRECO-LATIN    TYPE 
Raphael,  like  all  geniuses  of  the  brush,  employed  models  from  among  his  own  people  to 
represent  the  Virgin  and  Child,  and  in  his  matchless  Sistine  Madonna  we  see  a  typical  Greco- 
Latin  face  and  figure  (see  page  45o)- 


449 


450 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


and  extent.  West  of  that  line  and  north 
of  the  Alpine  system,  an  enormous  plain, 
broken  only  by  the  watersheds  of  its 
rivers,  extends  to  the  Xorth  Sea. 

When  the  Christian  era  began,  all  that 
plain  was  covered  by  forests  except  the 
marshlands  in  the  east.  That  plain,  as 
well  as  Scandinavia,  peopled  almost 
wholly  by  Teutons,  was  sometimes  called 
Germania.  East  of  that  line  was  another 
still  more  enormous  plain,  Sarmatia,  the 
home  of  the  Slavs,  a  race  almost  un- 
known. The  Alps,  northern  Italy,  a  part 
of  Spain,  France,  and  the  British  Islands 
were  inhabited  by  Celts.  The  centers  of 
the  Greco-Latins  were  Greece  and  Italy. 

Thus,  at  the  time  of  Christ  the  Alps 
are  the  signpost  of  Europe,  roughly 
pointing  out  where  the  races  are  to  be 
found:  north  of  the  Alps,  the  Teutons; 
south  of  the  Alps,  the  Greco-Latins ;  in 
the  Alps  and  to  the  west,  the  Celts ;  far 
cast  of  the  Alps,  little  affected  by  them, 
and  therefore  little  influenced  by  Europe 
and  of  as  little  influence  in  it,  the  Slavs 
and  the  Finno-L^grians. 

TAIR-IIAIRED   FOLKS    XORTH    OF   THF   ALPS 

Since  scholars  have  found  it  difficult 
to  indicate  the  great  races  of  mankind 
and  even  impossible  to  agree  as  to  how 
many  such  races  there  are,  it  is  not  sur- 
prising that  they  have  found  it  still 
harder  to  specify  distinctive  character- 
istics of  the  various  subdivisions  or 
minor  races.  This  fact  becomes  evident 
as  one  seeks  to  indicate  the  peculiar  phys- 
ical traits  of  the  Celts,  the  Teutons,  the 
Sla\'s,  and  the  Greco-Latins.  They  can  be 
described  only  in  general  terms,  though 
such  terms,  never  exact,  merely  approach 
exactness. 

The  ancient  Greeks  applied  to  all  fair- 
haired  peoples  living  north  of  the  Alps 
the  cf)mnion  name  Keltoi,  or  Celts.  Later 
these  Keltoi  were  recognized  as  consist- 
ing of  t\v(j  gr(ju])s,  shading  olT  into  each 
other. 

The  name  Celt  was  then  limited  to  the 
group  which  lived  nearest  the  Alps  and 
on  the  great  western  plateaus.  This 
group  is  also  called  Al])ine.  In  general 
its  peoples  were  of  stocky  build  rmd  me- 
dium   height,    their    hea(ls    round,    faces 


broad,  eyes  gray  or  hazel,  noses  rather 
broad,  complexion  light,  and  hair  light 
brown.     This  is  the  Celtic  type. 

The  second  group  had  its  seat  in  Scan- 
dinavia and  spread  out  southward  till  it 
mingled  with  the  first  group.  Its  peoples 
were  in  general  less  vivacious  than  the 
Celts,  and  had  longer  heads,  longer  faces, 
narrower  noses,  lighter  hair,  blue  eyes, 
and  were  taller.  Their  type  is  the  Teu- 
ton, or  German,  or  a  less  common  term, 
the  Nordic. 

The  Slavs  (as  Russian  pliilologists  as- 
sert, from  slava,  glory,  the  glorious,  or 
slova,  speech,  one  who  speaks)  do  not 
appear  in  history  until  about  the  fifth 
century  A.  D.  They  are  in  general  less 
animate  in  appearance  and  facial  expres- 
sion than  either  the  Teuton  or  the  Celt. 

In  general  they  are  stalwart,  the  hair 
and  beard  abundant,  the  hands  and  feet 
small.  But,  however  it  may  have  been 
thousands  of  years  ago,  there  is  no 
Slavic  physical  type  today  as  there  was 
and  is  a  Teutonic  and  Celtic  type.  This 
fact  is  i)ro]jably  due  to  the  remarkable 
faculty  in  absorbing  other  races  which 
the  Slav  possesses  and  to  the  diff'erent  in- 
fluences of  the  \arious  regions  in  which 
the  Slav  is  found.  Dark-complexioned 
and  light-complexiOned.  short  and  tall, 
black-bearded,  red-bearded,  and  yellow- 
bearded,  the  Slav  in  physical  character- 
istics is  the  most  cosmopolitan  of  men. 

The  Greco-Latin  in  its  two  types,  the 
Greek  and  the  Roman,  is  familiar ;  the 
"dark  whites"  of  Iluxley.  active,  demon- 
strative, vivacious;  in  politics  and  admin- 
istration, in  ])hilosophy  and  the  arts,  the 
teacher  of  mankind. 

TIIK  I!i:r.IX\I\r,S  OF  RACKS  siiROunFn  IX 
.M^■STI•:R^' 

Tlu'1)egiiiniiig  and  infancy  of  any  race 
is  unknown,  shrouded  in  mystery  which 
legends  confuse  rather  than  illumine. 
Nevertheless  a  record,  incomplete  and 
fragmentary,  of  the  races  of  Europe  is 
a\  ailable  for  the  last  two  thousand  years. 
This  record  it  will  be  interesting  to  re- 
view briefly.  Otherwise  we  should  be 
imable  to  ajijireciate  the  complex  situa- 
tion in  ])resent-(lav  l''iiro])e. 

In  tlu-  yvdv  I  17  the  Uonian  Ivmpire  at- 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


451 


FOLK   OF    THE    SEA 


By  V^irginia  Demont-Breton 
-THE    FAIR-HAIRED    TEUTON,    OR    NORDIC,    TYPE 


Here  a  noted  artist  has  recorded  on  canvas  the  distinctive  physical  attributes  of  a  people 
less  vivacious  than  the  Celts  and  possessing  longer  faces,  lighter  hair,  and  blue  eyes  (see 
page  450). 


tained  its  largest  extent.  It  embraced 
all  the  countries  on  the  Mediterranean  as 
well  as  a  strip  of  land  entirely  surround- 
ing the  Black  Sea.  It  also  included 
Britain,  all  the  region  now  occupied  by 
the  Rumanians  in  Transylvania,  Ru- 
mania proper  and  Bessarabia,  and  a  still 
larger  territory  between  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris.  Its  strongly  fortified  north- 
ern boundaries  were  the  Rhine  from  its 
mouth  and  the  Danube  as  far  as  where 
now  stands  the  city  of  Budapest.  More 
than  any  other  empire  mankind  had  seen, 


it  was  the  culmination  and  embodiment 
of  order,  law,  justice,  and  civilization. 

Beyond  its  northern  frontiers  in  that 
northern  plain  was  seething  another  and 
a  fiercer  world.  It  was  uncivilized  and 
incoherent,  a  mere  disorderly  mass  of 
humanity,  the  direct  opposite  of  every- 
thing the  Roman  knew.  The  Teutonic 
and  Slavic  tribes  who  occupied  its  un- 
bounded area,  incessantly  fighting  with 
one  another,  were  so  constantly  on  the 
move  that,  except  in  most  general  terms, 
one  cannot  indicate  the  location  of  any. 


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452 


THE    NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


453 


THE  BURSTING  OF  THE  HUN  TEMPEST 

Suddenly  there  burst  upon  Europe  the 
tempest  of  the  Huns,  a  Finno-Altaic 
people  who  had  been  long  located  in  the 
great  Asiatic  plains  beyond  the  Caspian. 
Their  numbers  prodigiously  increasing, 
they  expanded  toward  the  west. 

In  the  fourth  century  after  Christ,  as 
if  under  a  sudden  impulse,  the  whole 
multitude,  in  great  carts  and  on  horse- 
back, carrying  all  their  possessions, 
started  for  Europe.  Crossing  the  Volga, 
they  forced  the  Alans,  a  formidable  peo- 
ple of  mixed  blood,  to  join  them. 

The  Goths,  a  Teutonic  people  from 
Scandinavia,  at  that  time  occupied  all  the 
territory  between  the  Don  and  Theiss. 
Their  two  branches — the  Visi-Goths,  or 
Western  Goths,  and  the  Ostro-Goths,  or 
Eastern  Goths — had  united,  and  together 
constituted  the  mightiest  power  in  Eu- 
rope outside  of  Rome.  This  Empire  the 
Huns  overwhelmed. 

The  Ostro-Goths  submitted,  biding 
their  time  till  the  tempest  passed.  The 
A' isi-Goths  sought  an  asylum  south  of  the 
Danube,  in  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire, 
of  which  Constantinople  was  the  newly 
founded  capital. 

The  Huns  bivouacked  for  half  a  cen- 
tury in  the  center  of  Europe.  On  the 
Danube  they  founded  as  their  capital  the 
town  of  Buda,  which  with  Pest  on  the 
opposite  bank  is  still  the  capital  of  the 
Hungarians. 

Words  cannot  express  the  horror  with 
which  the  Huns  were  regarded  by  Ro- 
mans and  Teutons  alike.  Their  tiny 
eyes  piercing  flat,  bony  faces,  their  low. 
pointed  foreheads,  their  broad,  squat 
noses,  their  immense  flaring  ears,  their 
tattooed  and  painted  skin,  their  gro- 
tesque and  distorted  forms,  made  them 
seem  monsters  rather  than  men.  Blood- 
thirsty and  indifferent  to  suffering,  des- 
titute of  human  affection  or  feeling,  they 
were  reported  to  be  the  oft'spring  of 
demons  and  witches,  to  have  foul  spirits 
at  their  command,  and  to  be  masters  of 
infernal  magic. 

The  so-called  barbarian  invasions  of 
Europe  are  rightly  reckoned  as  beginning 
with  this  irruption  of  the  Huns.  Many 
migrations     had     already     taken     place. 


Many  peoples  had  assailed  the  Roman 
provinces  since  Brennus  and  his  (iauls 
ravaged  Italy  and  republican  Rome; 
but  each  of  those  invasions  and  attacks 
had  been  an  isolated  event,  coming  and 
passing,  the  consequences  of  which  were 
relatively  small.  None  had  set  the  en- 
tire continent  in  commotion. 

DISORDER   FOEEOWED  THE  HUNS 
EVERYWHERE 

Before  the  coming  of  the  Huns,  out- 
side the  Roman  Empire  there  had  been 
disorder,  but  a  disorder  localized  and 
confined.  For  centuries  after  the  Huns, 
everywhere,  from  Scandinavia  and  the 
Vistula  to  northern  Africa,  continuous 
and  ever-changing  disorder  reigned  su- 
preme. Populations,  incessantly  dis- 
placed, crowded  upon  one  another.  Celts,. 
Slavs,  Teutons,  Huns,  and  Romans  mixed 
and  were  lost  in  the  wild  confusion. 

Attila,  King  of  the  Huns,  roused  his 
people  to  resume  their  career  of  conquest 
in  the  west.  His  700,000  fighting  men 
comprised  not  only  Huns,  his  chief  re- 
liance, but  contingents  from  all  the  sub- 
jugated peoples  and  such  other  auxili- 
aries as  his  skill  could  attract.  The  tot- 
tering western  Empire  rallied  in  one  su- 
preme eft'ort  under  vEtius,  "the  last  Ro- 
man general,"  and  brought  into  the  field 
every  man  whom  piety  or  patriotism  or 
hope  of  reward  could  enlist. 

The  enormous  hosts  met  on  that  undu- 
lating plain  that  lies  between  Chateau- 
Thierry  and  Chalons.  At  stake  were  not 
primarily  the  interests  of  a  State,  but  the 
independence  and  civilization  of  the  men 
then  alive.  This  is  rightly  reckoned  one 
of  the  decisive  battles  of  the  world. 
Though  fought  almost  fifteen  centuries 
ago,  these  last  tragic  years  give  a  keen 
and  renewed  significance  to  that  battle 
of  Chalons,  the  first  dread  battle  of  the 
Alarne. 

Attila  did  not  long  survive  his  defeat. 
The  subject  Teutonic  and  Slavic  tribes 
regained  their  independence.  The  hordes 
of  Huns  dispersed;  some  remained  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  in  the 
Hungarv  of  today ;  some  settled  in  the 
Dobrudja  ;  some  wandered  back  and  were 
absorbed  in  the  kingdoms   of  their  kin, 


454 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


then  rising  on  the  Dnieper  and  the  \'olga. 
The}-  left  little  behind  except  an  execra- 
ble memory. 

TIIK  ADVUXT  OF  TIIK  CHRMAXS 

A  few  years  after  the  disruption  of  the 
Huns.  Odoacer,  chief  of  the  (lerman  He- 
ruli  and  of  tribes  in  alliance  with  them, 
forced  the  last  emperor  in  Rome  to  abdi- 
cate the  throne.  Thus  he  extinguished 
the  western  Roman  Empire,  fixed  the 
boundary  between  ancient  and  modern 
history,  and  eternalized  himself  as  the 
iirst  northern  barbarian  to  rule  in  Italy. 
Indifferent  to  the  weak  Slavic  tribes  scat- 
tered in  their  midst  and  to  the  more  nu- 
merous Slavs  in  the  marshes  and  forests 
beyond,  no  longer  hampered  by  awe  of 
Rome  or  terror  of  the  Huns,  the  Teutons 
were  ready  for  the  conquest  of  western 
Europe. 

When  Theodoric,  greatest  of  the 
Goths,  died  at  his  capital,  Ravenna,  in 
526,  just  tift\-  years  after  the  extinction 
of  the  western  Roman  Empire,  that  con- 
quest had  ajjparently  been  achieved.  The 
definite  subjugation  of  Britain,  though 
not  yet  complete,  was  assured  by  the 
solid  settlements  of  the  Jutes,  Saxons, 
and  Angles. 

The  few  Celts  of  Armorica  or  Brittany, 
of  Ireland  and  Scotland,  the  still  fewer 
Basques  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  that  part 
of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  which  the  im- 
pregnable walls  of  Constantinople  de- 
fended, had  not  been  subdued.  With 
those  exceptions,  all  Europe  west  of  the 
\'istula  and  Dneister,  all  from  Norway 
and  Sweden  as  far  as  and  beyond  the 
Mediterranean,  was  occupied  by  Cicrman 
kingdoms  and  ruled  by  German  kings. 
The  western  world  had  become  Teutonic. 
The  con([uest  seemed  not  only  universal 
but  permanent. 

The  strongest  of  such  kingdoms  were 
those  of  the  Ostro-Goths  in  Italy  and 
the  Visi-Goths  in  Spain.  The  one  ruled 
from  Sicily  to  the  Danube;  the  other 
from  the   south   of   Si)ain   to   the   Loire. 

The  Goths  had  become  Christians  in 
the  fourth  century,  long  before  any  other 
Teutonic  pe()])le.  Their  conversion,  ac- 
c(tnii)lishe(l  not  by  the  sword  or  royal 
conunand,  bul   through  the  ])rcacliing  of 


Ulfilas,  their  great  apostle,  seems  to  have 
affected  their  conduct  and  character.  In 
the  version  made  for  them  by  Ulfilas  in 
an  alphabet  probably  of  his  own  devising, 
they  possessed  the  first  translation  of  the 
Bible  in  any  Teutonic,  Celtic,  or  Slavic 
tongue.  From  it  Ulfilas  carefully  omitted 
the  four  Books  of  the  Kings,  fearing  they 
would  excite  further  the  warlike  passions 
of  his  countrymen.  The  Goths  were  the 
least  barbarous  and  most  humane  of  all 
the  early  invaders.  Yet  neither  of  their 
kingdoms  was  to  continue  long. 

Residence  in  a  southern  climate  sapped 
the  vigor  of  the  forest-bred  warriors  of 
the  north.  All  Goths,  as  supporters  of 
the  Arian  doctrine,  met  the  active  opposi- 
tion of  the  Church  of  Rome.  Family 
quarrels  wasted  resources  and  energy. 
In  Italy  the  long- wandering  pagan  Lom- 
bards, a  Teutonic  tribe,  and  the  Hunnic 
horde  of  the  Avars  replaced  the  Ostro- 
Goths.  In  Spain  the  Visi-Goths  were 
overthrown  by  the  Arab  invasion.  So 
the  more  than  300.000  Goths  disappeared, 
absorbed  among  the  inhabitants  of  the 
two  peninsulas.  Fragments  of  the  Gothic 
Bible  still  exist,  precious  relics  of  an 
otherwise  extinct  tongue.  Even  (^lOthic 
architecture  has  no  connection  with  tlie 
Goths  or  with  any  structure  they  ever 
built.  It  was  introduced  by  purists  in  the 
seventeenth  century  as  a  term  of  re- 
proach, meaning  barbarous,  and  a])iilied 
to  all  styles  not  classic. 

This  story  of  the  Goths  is  important 
as  aft'ording  example  of  what  went  on 
for  many,  many  years  throughout  the 
lands  once  part  of  the  Roman  Empire. 
States,  great  and  small,  of  various  de- 
grees of  dignity,  were  constantly  set  up 
by  various  tribes  and  races,  only  to  top- 
])k'  over,  and  chiefs  and  followers  to 
be  absorbed  into  the  native  iKiinilation. 
livery  ])olitical  division  was  a  crucible 
of  evershifting  size  wherein  races  were 
fused. 

.\s  Britain  had  been  a  Roman  prov- 
ince in  hardly  more  than  nanic,  fallen 
Rome  became  to  the  P.riton  a  mere  tradi- 
tion of  the  ])ast.  and  little  of  her  majesty 
was  left  in  bjigland  to  impress  the  bar- 
barian invader.  F.lsewhere  the  Greco- 
l.atin   inlluence  is  almost  startliui:  in  its 


"the   SLAV   IN    PHYSICAL    CHARACTERISTICS   IS    THE    MOST    COSMOl'OLITAX    OF    MEX" 
"Thanks  to  his  remarkable  faculty  for  absorbing  other  races,  he  is  dark  co"iP|f.-^VO"^d  and 
light  complexioned,  short  and  tall,  black  bearded,  red  bearded,  and  yellow  bearded     (.ee  page 
450). 


455 


456 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


4.". 


tenacity.  Every  European  country  over 
which  the  Roman  ruled  speaks  some 
form  of  the  Latin  language  and  is  ad- 
ministered by  Roman  law. 

THI5  PERIOD  OF  INVASION  ENDS 

The  main  period  of  invasion  and  con- 
sequent migration  begins  with  the  irrup- 
tion of  the  Huns  and  ends  with  the  Nor- 
man conquest  of  England  in  1066.  The 
Crusades,  which  came  on  later,  were  a 
gigantic  episode,  not  of  invasion  or  set- 
tlement, but  of  departure.  Some  of  the 
Crusaders  straggled  back.  The  vast  ma- 
jority laid  their  bones  by  the  roadside  or 
in  the  East  and  little  affected  the  making 
of  modern  European  races. 

The  turmoil,  continuous  through  a 
score  of  what  Homer  would  call  "genera- 
tions of  fighting  men,"  did  not  imme- 
diately cease,  but  became  spasmodic. 
Through  that  period  the  Teuton  and  the 
Greco-Latin  center  attention,  both  be- 
cause they  were  the  chief  actors  and  be- 
cause of  the  importance  of  the  stage  on 
which  they  acted.  Wherever  the  Celt 
appeared,  his  role  is  that  of  one  who  in 
vain  bravely  resists  and  is  all  the  time 
pushed  farther  to  the  wall. 

THE    ADVENT    OF    THE    SLAV 

The  Slav  becomes  more  distinct  in  the 
sixth  century,  at  times  occupying  land 
which  the  Teutons  had  left  vacant  or  at 
times  engaging  in  attack.  The  first  ar- 
ticulate utterance  of  the  Slavs  was  when 
the  city  of  Novgorod,  harassed  by  in- 
ternal commotions  which  it  could  not  sup- 
press, sent  in  862  the  following  message 
to  the  chief  of  the  Varangians,  a  tribe  of 
Northmen:  "Our  country  is  great  and 
fertile,  but  everything  is  in  disorder. 
Come  to  govern  us  and  rule  over  us." 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  the  credi- 
bility of  this  event,  which,  in  the  case 
of  the  Slav,  is  typical  rather  than  sur- 
prising. In  1862  the  whole  Russian  Em- 
pire celebrated  the  millennial  anniversary 
of  the  coming  of  Ruric  and  his  brothers 
in  answer  to  this  appeal  as  the  beginning 
of  Russian  history. 

Lack  of  self-reliance  or  of  initiative 
capacity,  anciently  as  now,  appeared  to  be 
a  characteristic  almost  inseparable  from 


the  Slav.  Dependence  upon  some  heljjing 
or  guiding  hand  has  often  resulted  in 
his  own  undoing,  while  he  himself  has 
seemed  unable  to  retain  what  his  indus- 
try or  courage  had  won.  The  story  of 
the  Slavic  race  is  crowded  with  examples 
of  this  fact  (see  pages  450  and  460-464). 

A  fundamental  source  of  its  strength 
is  that,  as  Professor  Hrdlicka  remarks, 
"there  seems  to  be  something  in  the  Slav 
make-up  which  favors  a  high  birthrate. 
.  .  .  The  Slavs  as  a  whole  show  the 
highest  fertility  among  the  more  impor- 
tant European  peoples." 

The  Eastern  Roman  or  Greek  or  By- 
zantine Empire,  after  an  existence  some- 
times glorious,  but  sometimes  inglorious, 
through  a  thousand  years,  ended  in  1453 
under  the  strangling  grip  of  the  Ottomaii 
Turks,  whose  invasion  was  unlike  any 
that  preceded. 

The  horrors  of  the  Hunnic  Empire  had 
been  alleviated  by  its  brief  continuance  ; 
the  so-called  barbaric  invasions  wrought 
not  only  evil,  but  greater  good  by  infus- 
ing into  the  veins  of  worn-out  races  their 
own  virile  blood  and  rendering  possible 
all  that  Europe  has  since  been  and  done. 
But  the  Turkish  invasion  is  unrelieved  by 
a  single  mitigating  fact  (see  also  The 
Ottoman  Turks,  page  473). 

NO  UNMIXED  RACES  AFTER  INVASION 

Tribal  loyalty  and  personal  attachment 
to  the  chief  characterized  the  early  bar- 
barians. Prestige  of  victory  and  hope  of 
gain  attracted  volunteers  and  hirelings 
to  any  successful  leader.  The  invading 
armies  were  thus  heterogeneous  bodies, 
made  up  of  adventurers  from  many 
sources,  but  in  after  years  were  mis- 
takenly regarded  as  tribal  kin  of  their 
leader. 

For  instance,  the  men  who  followed 
William  the  Norman  to  England  are  usu- 
ally regarded  as  Normans.  Doubtless 
many  of  them  were.  But.  since  his  own 
barons  balked  at  the  hazardous  enterprise. 
William  "had  to  gather  a  motley  host 
from  every  quarter  of  France."  After- 
wards success  attached  the  splendor  of 
the  Norman  name  to  every  man  in  that 
motley  host. 

Most  of  the  invasions  by  land  and  al- 
most all  of  those  bv  sea  were  made  by 


4S8 


THE   NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


459 


men  only.  In  general,  invasions  solely 
by  men  left  more  enduring  results  than 
those  by  peoples.  The  tendency  was  for 
men,  accompanied  by  their  families,  to 
remain  apart  from  the  conquered  as  a 
distinct  class.  The  single  man  formed 
ties  among  the  conquered  and  therefore 
was  identified  with  the  community. 

The  essential  fact,  however,  is  that, 
after  the  barbaric  invasions,  there  existed 
no  such  thing  as  an  unmixed  race.  Nor 
does  any  such  thing  exist  now.  Racial 
purity  is  a  figment  of  the  imagination. 

THE  TEST  OF  TOX'GUKS 

AA'e  have  seen  that  by  this  universal 
intermixture  of  mankind  in  Europe  all 
racial  characteristics  were  blended,  con- 
fused, or  lost.  Therefore  no  physical  test 
or  combination  of  such  tests  has  yet  been 
found  practicable  or  possible  to  apply. 
In  consequence,  "To  the  eye  of  modern 
scholarship  'language'  forms  the  basis  of 
ethnic  distinction." 

Language  is  not  an  infallible  guide. 
Sometimes  it  appears  unsatisfactory  and 
perhaps  misleading.  Sometimes  it  in- 
volves difficulties  and  seems  to  arrive  at 
contradictions.  But  there  is  no  other 
test  that  rivals  it  in  comprehensive  ac- 
curacy. Unsatisfactory  though  the  guide 
may  sometimes  be,  it  is  far  more  satis- 
factory than  any  other  we  possess. 

In  point  of  fact  we  possess  no  other. 
Webster's  New  International  Dictionary 
is  correct  in  the  definition,  "Slav:  a  per- 
son who  speaks  Slavic  as  his  mother 
tongue."  The  Encyclopaedia  Britannica 
is  correct  in  saying,  "Judged  by  the  lan- 
guage test,  and  no  other  is  readily  avail- 
able." The  authoritative  Statesman's 
Year  Book  is  correct  in  its  invariable 
system  of  determining  "ethnical  ele- 
ments on  the. basis  of  language." 

In  the  quaint  Biblical  story  it  was  by 
the  test  of  speech  that  the  men  of  Gilead 
at  the  passage  of  the  Jordan  detected  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim.  "It  was  so  that  when 
those  Ephraimites  which  were  escaped 
said,  'Let  me  go  over,'  that  the  men  of 
Gilead  said  unto  him,  'Art  thou  an 
Ephraimite?'  and  if  he  said,  'Nay;'  then 
said  they  unto  him,  'Say  thou  Shibboleth.' 
and  he  said,  'Sibboleth,'  for  he  could  not 


frame  to  pronounce  it  right. .  Then  they 
took  him  and  slew  him." 

It  was  a  common  racial  language,  de- 
spite local  difference,  that  distinguished 
the  Celts,  Teutons,  and  Slavs  from  one 
another.  It  was  the  main  bond  connect- 
ing the  several  members  of  each  of  those 
same  races.  "Thy  speech  bewrayeth 
thee"  was  the  identification  of  each  tribe. 

Sometimes  the  language  test  .seems  to 
fail  glaringly,  as  when  one  hears  the 
Balto-Slavic  Prussian  speaking  German 
as  his  mother  tongue,  or  the  Celtic  Irish 
speaking  English.  Yet  out  of  the  great 
total  such  anomalies  are  comparatively 
rare. 

A   NHW  AND  VIT.\L  IXTEREST  IX  EUROPE'S 
RACES 

The  races  of  Europe  are  today  in- 
vested with  a  vivid  interest  and  a  near- 
ness they  never  possessed  for  us  before. 
Through  more  than  four  agonizing  years 
in  thought  and  perhaps  in  person  we 
have  lived  in  their  very  midst.  Peoples 
little  known  have  appeared  on  the  hori- 
zon and  peoples  best  known  have  ac- 
quired a  fresh  significance.  Nor,  though 
the  hour  of  victory  has  come,  will  our 
strained  attention  relax. 

The  races  of  Europe  are  now  in  agita- 
tion, less  superficial  but  more  profound 
and  as  intense  as  that  by  which  they  were 
convulsed  by  the  Hun  fifteen  centuries 
ago.  The  Old  Order  has  passed  away 
with  the  millions  dead.  A  new  Europe 
is  in  the  making.  Neither  a  year  nor  a 
generation  will  suffice  to  make  it.  Xone 
of  the  now-living  will  behold  it  when 
made.  The  Peace  Conference  will  ren- 
der its  august  decisions,  and  its  members 
will  depart,  but  the  races  will  remain  on 
the  spot  where  on  them  the  making  of  the 
New  Europe  will  devolve. 

Europe,  though  so  old,  is  _  for  the 
greater  part  young  and  inexperienced  in 
self-government  and  political  duty  and 
opportunity.  The  gait  of  more  than  one 
newly  enfranchised  people  will  resemble 
the  uncertain  walk  of  a  just-awakened 
child.  No  marvel  if  its  liberty  seems  at 
times  license, 'and  freedom  for  one's  self 
a  safe  conduct  to  avenge  and  oppress. 
The  progress  of  the  most  advanced  na- 


460 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


tions  to  their  present  height  has  not  been 
unattended  by  mistakes  and  falls. 

The  moral  solidarity  of  mankind  has 
of  late  been  made  manifest  by  a  demon- 
stration without  precedent  in  history. 
The  world's  heart  might  be  wrung  at  the 
exalted  sacrifices  of  the  French,  Belgians, 
and  Serbians,  but  it  was  the  world's  con- 
science which  ranged  all  peoples,  whose 
expression  was  possible,  upon  one  side, 
except  the  four  nations  in  which  appar- 
ent certainty  of  profit  calloused  any  con- 
ceivable sense  of  shame.  The  four  re- 
sponsible for  the  inexpiable  crime  of  the 
last  war  have  not  an  ally  or  friend  on 
earth. 

The  New  Europe  will  be  built  upon  a 
more  enduring  foundation  stone  than  was 
the  Old.  Force  and  force  alone  was  the 
sanction  of  the  Old  Order.  The  New 
Eurojic  will  rest  upon  the  solid  rock,  the 
sublime  truth  proclaimed  by  Mirabeau. 
"Right  is  the  vSovereign  of  the  World." 

To  establish  that  truth  the  Entente 
Allies  have  lavished  their  hard-earned 
wealth  and  the  priceless  blood  of  millions 
of  their  sons.  The  absolute  victory  of 
arms  being  accomplished,  their  responsi- 
bility to  mankind  enters  upon  its  second 
stage :  to  safeguard  from  a  still  strong, 
unrepentant,  and  subtle  foe  what  has 
been  achieved. 

All  the  Allies  are  one  in  principle,  pur- 
pose, and  idea.  Yet,  because  of  their 
greater  strength,  upon  the  British, 
French,  Italian,  and  American  democra- 
cies this  res])onsibility  rests. 

Many  a  political  stumble  is  in  store. 
much  turbulence,  perhaps  bloodshed,  be- 
fore all  the  enfranchised  appreciate  and 
enjov  justice  and  order  and  liberty.  lUit 
through  it  all  let  not  our  faith  and  sym- 
pathy waver  for  even  the  most  ignorant 
and  the  longest  oppressed. 

KXI'L.NNATION    OI'    TIIK     RACI-;     MAP 

CXir  map  .shows.  ])ict()rially.  the  ])rin- 
cii)al  facts  regarding  the  distribution  of 
the  ]jeoples  of  luu'ope  and  their  relation- 
ships, based  on  the  researches  of  Deni- 
ker.  Ilrdlicka.  and  many  other  savants. 

Racial  boundaries  differ -from  the  po- 
litical boundaries  of  provinces  and  States. 
The  latter  are  definite  and  e.xact.  de- 
termined   ofun    on    mathematical    lines. 


The  former  are  always  indefinite  and 
elusive.  Between  two  adjacent  races 
there  is  always  a  neutral  zone  which  be- 
longs to  both  and  is  the  property  of 
neither — a  border  region,  where  the  two 
fade  ofif  into  each  other  by  invisible  de- 
grees. 

For  the  first  time  in  human  experience, 
the  efifort  is  being  made  by  the  victors 
after  a  great  war  to  trace  the  new  fron- 
tiers in  accordance  with  the  racial  as- 
])irations  and  affinities  of  the  peoples  in- 
volved. Because  of  this  impossibility  of 
defining  exactly  the  limits  of  a  race,  many 
heart  burnings  are  inevitable  in  the  new 
adjustment  of  European  boundaries. 

Professor  Hrdlicka  estimates  that  there 
are  in  Europe  from  145  to  150  millions 
of  people  of  Slavic  stock,  144  to  148  mil- 
lions Teutonic,  and  125  to  127  millions 
Greco-Latin. 

Our  description  of  the  races  of  Eu- 
rope begins  farthest  east.  First  taking 
up  the  races  of  the  once  mighty  Russian 
Empire,  we  next  attempt  the  Rumanians, 
then  the  races  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
afterward  those  of  the  once  so-called 
Central  Empires,  and  thus  on.  following 
the  Map  of  the  Races,  until  we  reach  the 
British  Islands. 

THE  RACES  OF  THE  RUSSIAN 
DOMINIONS* 

Taken  as  a  whole,  the  Russians,  as  in  the 
(lavs  of  Peter,  are  an  inchoate  mass.  Whether 
the  stern  Tsar,  who  sought  to  knout  his  sub- 
jects into  civilization,  was  in  truth  a  benefac- 
tor to  his  people  is  a  problem.  At  least  he 
made  it  certain  that,  when  an  autocratic  hand 
was  no  loiipcr  felt,  component  parts,  not 
welded  but  merely  held  together  by  brute 
force,  would  fall  asunder.  The  spectacle  i>f 
such   disruption   we  behold   today. 

Tlie  principal  parts,  no  longer  component, 
arc    the    Great    Russians,    the    Little    Russians, 

*  See  al>.o.  ni  X.ntioxai,  Gkocrai'IIu  Mao.a- 
ziNi:.  •'The  Land  of  Unlimited  Possibilities," 
by  Gilbert  Grosvenor  (November,  1914)  :  "Rus- 
sia's Democrats,"  by  Montgomery  Schu\ler.  and 
•The  Russian  Situation,"  by  Stanley  Wash- 
burn (March,  i<ji7)  ;  "Russia  from  Within." 
by  Stanley  Washburn  (.\ugust,  1917)  ;  ".\  Few 
(•ilimi)ses  into  Russia."  by  Zinovi  Peclikotl^^ 
(Seiitember.  1917):  "N'oyaging  on  the  X'olga." 
bv  William  T.  I'.llis  (March.  n>iS)  ;  "Russia's 
(iri-ban  Races."  by  .\laynard  O.  Williams  (Oc- 
tober. 1918).  and  "The  Rebirth  of  Religion  in 
Russia."  bv  Thomas  Whittcmore  (.November, 
loiS). 


TWO    PICTURESQUE    EXAMPLES    OF    UKRAINIAN    WOMANHOOD 

The  Little  Russian  branch  of  the  Slav  race  numbers  30,000,000,  residin.s:  chiefl.v  in  the 
territory  esteemed  most  sacred  in  Russian  eyes.  Kief,  the  Holy  City  of  the  Slav  dominions, 
is  the  metropolis  of  the  Ukraine.  This  region  is  likewise  the  home  of  Russian  folk-lore. 
The  love  songs  of  the  Little  Russians  are  distinguished  by  their  tenderness  (see  page  463). 


461 


462 


THE    NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


THE  LAPPS,   TIIK   ROUNDK 


i'liotograph  by  Uuiij  .Mc;C 
llvADKl)    PKOPLK    IN    EUROPE 


For  centuries  they  have  made  their  home  on  the  permanently  frozen,  treeless  wastes  of 
the  tundra  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Russia.  As  a  result,  they  are  generally  dwarfed  both 
in  body  and  mind.  They  do  not  average  more  than  four  feet  seven  inches  in  height,  and 
even  the  children  have  faces  which  are  frequently  drawn  and  ugly,  as  if  with  age  (see  p.  466). 


the  White  Russians  and  the  Cossacks,  all 
Slavs,  all  speaking  some  form  of  Russian 
Slavit,  all  members  or  dissidents  of  the  Eas- 
tern Orthodox  Church,  but  each  group  of  a 
different  type  from  the  rest  (see  pages  450  and 
457). 

THE    CREAT    RUSSIANS 

The  Great  Russians  spread  extensively  from 
Moscow  as  their  historic  center.  The  river 
.Moskwa  gave  its  name,  not  only  to  the  capital 
which  stands  upon  its  banks  but  to  the  Mus- 
covite Empire  and  to  tlic  Tsars  of  Muscovy. 
Through  the  East  a  Russian  is  always  called 
a  Muscov.  Saint  Petersburg  or  Petrograd. 
always  foreign,  kindled  no  love  or  devotion. 
Moscow  delivered  the  people  from  two  cen- 
turies of  oppression  by  the  Tatars  of  the 
Golden  Horde:  in  r6t3  crushed  the  Poles  and 
gave  the  nation  a  new  birth  :  in  its  flames  con- 
sumed the  Empire  of  Napoleon.  It  is  still 
"Holy   Mf)ther   .Moscow." 

Other  Russians  are  merely  accretions.  ad(le(l 
by  con(|Ucst  or  voluntary  submission.  The 
Great  Russians  arc  the  real  Russians,  .'\mong 
them  are  seen  some  of  "the  best  examples  of 


the  Caucasian  type."  They  are  industrious, 
unambitious,  sluggish,  dreamy,  patient,  devout, 
disliking  responsibility,  indifferent  rather  than 
careless,  impractical,  pacilic.  Theirs  is  the 
only  n;itional  lixinu  wliicli  breathes  as  its  chief 
note  a  prayer  for  peace.  Yet,  when  the  order 
comes,  no  men  more  readily  Hock  to  the  colors. 
\'o  soldiers  are  braver  or  endure  longer. 

The  Great  Russians  are  helpless  when  with- 
out an  object  for  their  devotii')rf.  I'ormerly 
they  iiad  two:  God  and  the  Tsar.  The  Tsar 
has  been  taken  away,  and  in  the  present  con- 
fusion, according  to  the  Slavic  proverb, 
'ileayen  is  far  otT."  So  they  flounder  for  a 
time  in  a  political  and  religious  quagmire,  un- 
able as  yet  to  feel  solid  ground. 

Uy  I'xp.msion.  as  the  more  prolilic  rather 
than  by  lighting,  they  have  pushed  the  h'inns, 
who  occupied  morr  than  Iialf  the  Russian 
pl.iin,  still  further  north.  In  return  their 
pliysi(|ue  au'I  ti.ini)eramen(  have  been  pro- 
foundly affected  by  coi\st:nU  blood  intermix- 
ture with  the  Imiuis  and  in  less  degree  with  the 
Tatars.  Their  frames  are  well  knit  and  mus- 
cular, hair  and  beards  thick  and  curly,  nose 
pronounced,  eves  blue  or  brown,  complexion 
fl..rid. 


THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC  MAGAZINE 


463 


Altogether  they  number  about  80,000,000,  a 
homogeneous  whole,  numerous  enough  to  con- 
stitute a  great  State,  inland  except  as  it 
touches  the  Arctic,  with  "No  window  upon 
the  West."  They  would  be  probably  content 
if  a  chain  of  buffer  States  from  the  Black  Sea 
to  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  should  shut  them  off 
from  European  connection.  Tolstoi,  Turgue- 
niev,  Dostoievski,  Vereshchagin  were  all  Great 
Russians. 


THE    UKRAINIANS  ^ 

The  Little  Russians  or  Ukrainians  number 
about  30,000,000.  Theirs  is  the  territory  es- 
teemed most  sacred  in  Russian  eyes. 

To  Kief,  their  principal  city,  Oleg,  brother 
and  successor  of  the  Varangian  Ruric,  trans- 
ferred the  royal  dignity  from  abandoned  Nov- 
gorod. The  life  of  Queen  Olga,  "The 
Saintly,"  the  subsequent  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity of  the  King,  Saint  Vladimir,  and  of  the 
Russian  people  at  Kherson,  and  all  the  heroic 
history  of  the  Russian  Church,  were  wrought 
in  the  Ukraine.  INIilitant  as  well,  expeditions 
thence  wrested  tribute  from  the  Byzantine 
Empire,  and  Oleg,  the  king,  suspended  his 
shield  in  triumph  from  the  Golden  Gate  of 
Constantinople. 

The  proximity  of  Tatars  and  .Turks  and 
the  resultant  strain  of  blood  have  rendered 
the  Little  Russians  more  warlike  than  their 
northern  brethren.  They  are  of  slighter, 
shorter  figure,  and  less  robust.  Their  darker 
faces  have  more  expression.  They  are  less 
plodding,  more  volatile  and  imaginative,  love 
music  and  are  strongly  attached  to  family  and 
home.  Gogol,  born  at  Poltava,  gives  many 
attractive    pictures    of    the    Little    Russians. 

Their  country  in  1320  was  conquered  and 
annexed  by  the  Poles,  who  called  it  Ukraine 
or  "barrier"  against  the  Tatars.  The  part 
east  of  the  Dnieper  was  restored  to  Russia  in 
1686  and  the  western  part  in  1793. 

THE    WHITE    RUSSIANS 

The  White  Russians  derive  their  name  from 
their  pale  faces  or  from  the  white  clothes  they 
habitually  wear.  They  number  not  over  5,- 
000,000  and  are  found  usually  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  the  Lithuanians.  They  are  jiot  strong- 
bodied  or  forceful,  seldom  exhaust  themselves 
by  overwork  and  are  generally  poor.  They 
have  no  towns,  hardly  any  villages,  but  live  in 
the  woods. 

Always  the  victims  of  oppression,  they  show 
its  results  in  appearance  and  habits.  Their 
dialect  differs  greatly  from  that  of  the  Great 
or  Little  Russians. 

THE  RESTEESS,  FAITHFUL  COSSACKS 

The  southern  Ukraine  is  "the  savage,"  the 
"boundless      steppe,"     "The      Wilderness"      of 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "The  Ukraine,  Past  and  Present,"  by 
Nevin  O.  Winter   (August,  1918). 


Sienkiewicz'  masterly  romance,  "With  Fire 
and  Sword."  Thither,  when  the  Ukraine  was 
Polish  territory,  flocked  thousands  of  escaped 
serfs  and  outlaws,  who  gradually  separated 
into  groups.  Their  headquarters  were  just  be- 
low the  cataracts  of  the  Dnieper.  They  were 
called  "Kazaki"  from  a  Tatar  word  meaning 
freebooters  or  adventurers. 

Proscribed  by  the  Roman  Catholic  Polish 
nobility,  they  often  allied  themselves  with  the 
Tatars  of  the  Crimea  and  later  with  the  Rus- 
sians, Eastern  Orthodox  like  themselves. 
They  were  the  real  masters  of  the  Ukraine, 
which  their  hetman,  Chmielnicki,  caused  to  be- 
come again  Russian.  A  later  and  traitorous 
hetman,  the  Mazeppa  of  Byron's  poem,  en- 
deavored in  vain  to  deliver  it  to  Charles  XII 
at  Poltava. 

Always  restless  but  always  faithful  to  th2 
Tsar,  they  emigrated  to  the  Crimea  and  then 
farther  east.  They  were  made  "Guardians  of 
the  Frontiers."  They  now  consist  of  ten  dis- 
tinct bodies,  of  which  the  Cossacks  of  the  Don. 
the  Usuri,  Orenburg  and  Astrakhan  are  the 
most  important. 

Their  lawlessness  has  abated,  but  not  their 
warlike  instincts  or  their  loyalty.  The  fallen 
Empire  had  no  more  faithful  soldiers  than  its 
320,000  mounted  Cossacks. 

In  time  of  peace  they  are  farmers,  cattle- 
men, horse  breeders,  fishers,  raisers  of  bees, 
cultivators  of  vines.  Among  them  popular 
education  stands  on  a  higher  plane  than  else- 
where in  Russia.  Relatively  they  have  more 
schools  and  more  children  in  them.  Indus- 
trious, thrifty,  domestic,  they  do  not  deserve, 
despite  their  origin,  the  opprobrium  in  which 
they  are  held  by  Europe. 

THE  RACES  OF  THE  BALTIC 
PROVINCES 

Upon  the  map,  east  of  the  Baltic,  between 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  and  the  river  Niemen,  a 
territory  of  about  fifty  thousand  square  miles 
is  indicated,  inhabited  mainly  by  Esthonians,  or 
Esths,  Letts  and  Lithuanians.  This  territory 
forms  a  natural  geographic  unit.  Command- 
ing the  eastern  Baltic  and  the  southern  ap- 
proaches to  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  hence  to 
Petrograd  and  interior  Russia,  it  is  of  great 
strategic  importance.  Probably  no  part  of 
northern  Europe  has  seen  fiercer  fighting  or 
been  more  often  drenched  with  blood.  This 
geographic  unit  corresponds  in  the  main  with 
the  famous  Baltic  provinces,  which  comprised 
ancient  Esthonia,  Livonia,  and  Courland.  It 
forms  a  deep  semicircle  around  the  historic 
city  of  Riga,  its  guardian  and  sentinel. 

in  general  the  country  is  low  and  marshy, 
dotted  with  innumerable  lakes  and  covered 
with  dense  forests  wherever  lake  and  marsh 
permit  trees  to  live.  Toward  the  middle  a  little 
scarred  plateau  rises  a  few  hundred  feet,  which 
the  native  poets  called  the  "Livonian  Switzer- 
land." 

The  entire  population  is  not  over  3,100,000, 
of  whom  there  are  about   1,150,000  Esths,  or 


464 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    iMAGAZINE 


A   GROUP  OF  GREEK   PEASANTS   IN    THE   REGION    OF   PARNASSUS    (SEE   PAGE  477) 

Lineal  descendants  of  men  who  two  thousand  years  ago  were  the  custodians  of  the 
world's  art,  culture,  and  science,  these  peasants,  uncouth  in  appearance  yet  friendly  and  hospi- 
tahlc,  possess  the  heritage  of  a  glorious  past. 


Ksthonians,  mostly  in  the  north;  1,500,000 
Letts  and  Lithuanians,  toward  the  south,  in 
Livonia  and  Courland ;  200,000  Germans,  and 
100,000  Jews.  The  Russians  at  no  time  consti- 
tuted more  than  2  per  cent  i>f  the  inhabitants. 

THE   ESTIIS 

The  Esths  are  a  Finno-UgHan  people,  once 
savage  and  adventurous,  terrifying  the  Baltic 
with  their  piracy,  constantly  attacking  and  at- 
tacked l)y  tlic  Danes  and  Swedes.  Their  final 
subjection  by  the  Brothers  of  the  Sword  and 
their  enforced  acceptance  of  Christianity 
crushed  their  spirit  and  rendered  thei;!  serfs 
to  their  German  masters. 

The  Estlis  outnumber  the  Germans  in  the 
old  Province  of  I'sthonia  twenty-nine  to  one; 
yet  nine-tentlis  of  all  the  hnd  is  held  by  Ger- 
mans. In  the  former  Proviiur  nf  Livunia  the 
Esths  constitute  nearly  half  the  population, 
while  the  Germans  are  less  tlian  oue-fiftientb. 
There  the  lantl  is  divided  into  estates  averag- 
ing over  ten  thousand  acres  in  extent,  none 
owned  by  an  Esth  or  Lett,  but  almost  invariably 
by  a  German.  Tlic  Russian  Government  at 
times  endeavored  by  agrarian  laws  to  alleviate 
the    condition    of    the    peasant.      Such    efforts 


failed  against  tlie  stolid  resistance  of  tlie  great 
])roprietors. 

The  Esths  have  clung  devotedly  to  their  na- 
tional language,  the  sole  inheritance  from  their 
l)ast.  They  love  poetry  and  song.  Their  phy- 
sical characteristics  are  I'innic ;  their  faces 
short,  broad,  beardless:  their  foreheads  low, 
moutiis  small,  arms  long,  legs  short.  Despite 
tJieir  extreme  poverty,  education  is  relatively 
advanced.  .Ml  but  4  per  cent  arc  Lutheran 
Protestants. 

Since  the  sudden  universal  awakening  in 
1018,  the  Esths  or  the  land-owners  have  been 
insistent  upon  natiiMial  recognition.  But  own- 
ership in  the  land  is  their  greatest  need. 

nil"   LETTS 

Tlie  Letts  ;ire  one  of  three  cognate  tril»es, 
(lislinct  from  any  otlier  in  Europe,  which  once 
dwell  side  by  side  on  tlie  eastern  .sh<ires  of  the 
r.altio;  farthest  west,  the  Borussi,  who  bec.inic 
the  Prussi.ms;  toward  the  middle,  the  Lithu- 
:ini:uis  proi)er.  and  farthest  north  the  Letts. 
So  nnich  do  the  two  latter  resemble  each  other 
in  personal  appear.ince,  language,  occupation, 
and  the  hardships  of  life  that  foreigners  usually 
identify  them  as  one.      Xo  distinction  of  the 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


4Gi 


two  i?  made  in  the  cen- 
sus. They  are,  however, 
separate  peoples,  though 
it  is  not  easy  even  for 
themselves  to  specify 
wherein  the  difference 
lies.  Until  of  late  they 
have  thought  little  of  na- 
tional existence.  Circum- 
stances denied  them  a 
large  place  in  history. 
Almost  all  are  Protes- 
tants. Luther's  Greater 
Catechism  was  the  first 
hook  printed  in  Lettish, 
which  was  not  reduced  to 
writing  before  the  six- 
teenth century. 

THE  LITHUANIANS 

"In  the  eyes  of  the  eth- 
nologist, Lithuanian  is 
the  most  important  lan- 
guage of  Europe."  It  is 
allied  to  the  western 
branches  of  Slavic,  re- 
sembles Latin  more  than 
it  does  Celtic  or  German, 
and  is  most  like  Sanscrit. 
Into  its  grammar  and 
vocabulary  have  filtered 
some  Slavic  forms  and 
many  Slavic  words. 

Scholars,  baffled  by  the 
mystery  of  Lithuanian 
origin  and  language,  have 
applied  to  both  people 
and  tongue  the  conve- 
nient term  Balto-Slavic. 
Dwellers  in  swamps  and 
forests,  their  racial  char- 
acter has  been  little  modi- 
fied. 

In  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury they  developed  an 
independent  State,  which 
finally  extended  from  the 
Bahic  to  the  Black  Sea. 
They  suffered  horribly 
from  the  merciless 
Brothers    of   the    Sword 

and  the  Teutonic  Knights.  The  Teutonic 
Order,  or  Teutonic  Knights,  of  St.  Mary's 
Hospital  at  Jerusalem  and  the  Knights,  or 
Brothers,  of  the  Sword,  at  first  purely  philan- 
thropic, were  organized  during  the  Crusades. 
Afterward  installed  on  the  Baltic  and  become 
military,  they  employed  fire  and  sword  to 
Christianize  the  wild  natives  ar^d  reduce  them 
to  servitude. 

The  Lithuanians  remained  pagan  until  their 
Duke  Jagellon,  in  1386,  married  the  beautiful 
Polish  Queen  Jadvidja,  shortly  afterward  ac- 
cepted Christian  baptism  and  ordered  his  obe- 
dient subjects  to  do  the  same. 

Thenceforward  they  shared  all  the  vicissi- 
tudes of  the  Poles.    It  was  a  Lithuanian  com- 


Photograph  by  Erdelyi 
THROUGH    HER   VEINS   FLOWS   THE    BLOOD    OE    MANY   RACES 
WHICH   HAVE  MINGLED  AFTER  INVADING  THE  BALKANS 

After  the  barbaric  itfvasions  there  existed  no  such  thing  as  an 
immixed  race.  Particularly  is  it  true  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula  that 
racial  purity  is  a  figment  of  the  imagination  (see  page  457). 


mander,  with  an  army  mainly  Lithuanian,  who 
inflicted  on  the  Teutonic  Knights  the  crushing 
defeat  at  Tannenberg  in  1410. 

Poverty  and  wretchedness  have  been  for 
centuries  their  almost  invariable  lot.  Though 
an  agricultural  people,  the  land  is  almost  wholly 
held  by  great  Polish  and  German  owners.  The 
Russian  land  laws,  devised  in  the  interest  of 
the  peasantry,  accomplished  no  more  for  them 
than  for  the  Esths  and  the  Letts.  ]\Iany 
Lithuanians  have  emigrated  to  the  L^ited 
States,  where  they  show  themselves  simple, 
honest,  and  industrious.  With  few  exceptions, 
they  are  Lutheran  Protestants. 

Excellent  soldiers,  they  fought  valiantly  in 
the  Russian  ranks  during  the  last  war.     About 


466 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


half  of  the  3,000,000  Lithuanians  live  outside 
the  limits  of  the   former  Baltic  provinces. 

Lithuanians  and  Letts  today  feel  the  thrill  of 
national  consciousness.  They  would  like  to 
stand  before  the  world  as  independent  nations. 
Whether  the  action  taken  to  this  end  is  con- 
fined to  the  foreign  land-owners,  whose  power 
and  dignity  would  thereby  be  increased,  or 
whether  the  people  have  any  share  in  it  is 
unknown.  Until  agrarian  conditions  are  rad- 
ically changed,  the  political  existence  of  the 
State  will  practically  benefit  neither  Lithuanian 
nor  Esth  nor  Lett. 

THE   FINNO-UGRIANS 

The  Finno-Ugrians  fifteen  hundred  years 
ago  occupied  the  northern  half  of  the  Rus- 
sian plain.  Slavic  tribes,  advancing  from  the 
south,  split  into  them  like  a  wedge,  pressing 
some  to  the  east,  but  the  great  majority  to  the 
northwest  toward  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Their 
numbers  have  constantly  diminished  through 
amalgamation  with  the  Slavs. 

On  the  east  are  now  found  the  sparse  set- 
tlements of  the  Voguls,  who  speak  a  peculiar 
dialect;  the  Cheremissians  on  the  Volga,  the 
Permians,  shrewd  traders,  and  the  more  im- 
portant IMordvinians.  The  identity  of  the 
widely  spread  but  fast  disappearing  Sarn- 
oyedes,  now  no  more  than  4,000  persons,  is  in 
doubt. 

On  the  west  the  Esths  in  Esthonia.  the 
Choudes  around  Novgorod  and  the  Karelians. 
north  and  south  of  Petrograd,  are  historically 
of  greater  interest. 

THE  FIXNS  * 

By  far  the  most  numerous  and  most  civil- 
ized' of  the  Finno-Ugrians,  not  reckoning  the 
Finno-Ugrian  Magyars  (see  page  497).  are 
those  who  call  themselves  Suomi,  hut  whose 
relative  importance  Europe  recognizes  in  ap- 
plying to  them  the  generic  name  of  Finns.  No 
other  of  their  race,  except  the  Magyars,  en- 
joys a  political  existence. 

"Their  country,  iMnland,  has  an  area  of  125,- 
689  square  miles,  largely  lake  and  island,  situ- 
ated between  the  Gulfs  of  Finland  and  Bothnia 
and  included  between  60°  and  70°  north  lati- 
tude. In  the  twelfth  century  it  was  conquered 
and  the  peoi)le  converted  to  Christianity  largely 
by  I'.ishop  Henry,  a  supposed  Englishman,  who 
being  killed  in  light  was  canonized  and  as  Saint 
Henry  has  become  the  patron  saint  of  Fin- 
land. Since  then  until  last  year  it  has  never 
known  independence.  Constantly  fought  over  by 
Sweden  and  Russia,  it  with  the  .Mand  Islands 
became  a  semi-independent  Grand  Duchy 
of  the  latter  in  1809.  The  stubborn  opposition 
of  the  people  always  thwarted  attempts  at 
russification.  In  December,  TQ17,  the  Fiiuiish 
Diet  declared  Finland  an  independent  republic, 

*  See  also,  in  National  Gkocrapiiio  Mac.a- 
ziNE.  "Where  Women  Vote,"  by  Baroness 
Allctta  Korflf  (June,  1910). 


which  as  such  has  been  recognized  by  Russia, 
Sweden,  Norway,  France,  Spain,  Denmark 
and  Germany. 

In  general  the  Finns  are  short,  have  flat 
faces,  round  heads,  prominent  cheek-bones, 
oblique  eyes,  thin  beards,  variously  hued  hair 
and  not  clear  complexions.  Education  is  gen- 
eral and  highly  advanced,  though  three  per 
cent  of  the  people  are  paupers. 

Except  50,000  members  of  the  Eastern 
Orthodox  Church  and  less  than  a  thousand 
Roman  Catholics,  all  the  3,500,000  inhabitants 
are  Protestant  Lutherans.  Among  them  are 
about  400,000  Swedes  who  predominate  along 
the  coast.  Helsingfors  is  a  Swedish  city.  Not 
including  the  Magyars,  there  must  be  nearly 
4,500,000  Finno-Ugrians  in  Europe. 

THE   LAPPS 

The  Lapps  are  pathetic  figures  to  foreigners. 
Though  closely  related  to  the  Finns,  they  and 
their  ancestors  in  their  wanderings  have  never 
known  any  part  of  the  world  except  the  per- 
manently frozen  sub-soil  and  the  tree-less 
wastes  of  the  tundra.  In  consequence  they  are 
dwarfed  in  body  and  mind. 

They  average  only  four  feet,  seven  inches  in 
height.  The  faces,  even  of  the  young,  are 
drawn  and  appear  old  and  the  whole  frame 
often  is  undeveloped  and  misshapen.  No  shade 
of  color  in  hair  or  eyes  or  even  in  complexion 
can  be  considered  typical,  there  is  so  great 
variety.  They  are  said  to  be  the  roundest- 
headed  people  in  Europe. 

Some  few  along  the  rivers  or  seacoast  are 
fishermen  or  cattle  breeders,  but  the  most  for 
food,  occupation  and  subject  of  thought  are 
dependent  on  the  reindeer  which  seems  made 
for  them  as  they  for  it.  In  Norway  there  are 
about  17,000,  in  Sweden  7,000.  in  Russia  twice 
as  many.  They  are  steadily  decreasing  in 
number,  the  little  civilization  that  has  reached 
them  not  being  altogether  beneficial.  Those  in 
Russia  are  reckoned  Eastern  Orthodox  and 
those  in  Scandinavia  Protestant,  but  how  far 
this  secretive  people  have  really  abandoned 
pagan  beliefs  and  practices  is  not  known. 

The  word  Lapp  is  supposed  to  be  Swedish 
and  to  mean  enchanter,  but  others  suggest  that 
it  is  derived  from  the  Finnish  lappa,  meaning 
"land's  end  folk."  Long  regarded  as  sorcerers 
and  necromancers,  they  appear  in  Norwegian 
tales  as  proficients  in  the  black  art. 

THE  PEOPLES  OF  THE 
CAUCASUS  * 

The  peoples  of  the  Caucasus  present  a  be- 
wildering but  a  fascinating  study.  .*\ny  attempt 
to  classify  or  even  discuss  them  in  limited  space 
is  futile.  The  oflicial  Russian  figures  estimate 
them    according   to    races    as    about    5,000,000 

*Sec  also,  in  National  Gkocraphic  Mac.a- 
ziNK.  "An  Island  in  the  Sea  of  History"  (High- 
lands of  Daghestan,  Caucasus  Mountains),  by 
George  Kennan  (October,  1913). 


PRIDE   OF  RACE   IS   A    STRIKING   CHARACTERISTIC   OF   TllE   RUMANIAN 

Peasant  and  noble  alike  of  this  robust  people  are  jealous  of  their  descent  from  the  thou- 
sands of  Roman  families  and  Roman  soldiers  who  more  than  sixteen  centuries  ago  settled 
the  prosperous  colony  beyond  the  Danube  known  as  "Dacia  Felix"  (see  page  471). 


467 


3  JT 

?'5 


.5 

3    O 


5  ^i 

si 


468 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


■  469 


Aryans,  50,000  Syro-Arabs,  1,900,000  Ural- Al- 
taians, and  2,500,000  "Caucasians,"  the  latter 
term  in  this  connection  meaning  simply  nonde- 
scripts. The  disproportion  of  the  sexes  is 
marked,  there  being  only  91  women  to  every 
100  men. 

Looking  out  from  Mount  Elbruz,  a  peak 
3,000  feet  higher  than  Mount  Blanc,  we  have 
on  the  northwest  200,000  Circassians,  splendid 
physical  types  of  men  and  women,  Moslems, 
without  written  laws  or  written  language,  hos- 
pitable in  the  extreme,  revering  old  age,  theft 
no  crime,  but  discovery  in  theft  a  disgrace, 
personal'  and  tribal  independence  a  passion. 
Women  are  little  esteemed  except  as  objects  of 
sale.  The  Circassian  slave  trade  involved  no 
sense  of  disgrace  in  the  mind  of  the  seller  or 
the  sold,  as  the  girls  were  carefully  nurtured 
for  a  place  in  the  harem. 

On  the  east  600,000  Lesghians,  dwellers  in 
Daghestan  "from  the  beginning,"  an  agglomer- 
ation of  tribes  with  an  equal  number  of  dia- 
lects, devoted  Moslems,  brave  to  recklessness, 
of  almost  exhaustless  endurance,  of  stalwart 
figure,  but  of  every  possible  hue  of  eyes  and 
hair,  marked  diversity  of  skull,  tenacious  of 
rights,  a  people  incarnate  in  their  leader, 
Shamyl,  who  resisted  Russia  for  twenty-five 
years. 

In  the  southeast  270,000  Chechens,  wild  and 
fierce,  of  imposing  presence,  generous  and 
friendly,  their  religion  a  peculiar  blending  of 
Islam  and  Christianity,  a  people  much  resem- 
bling the  Circassians. 

Directly  south  of  Mount  Elbruz,  to  whose 
crags  Prometheus  was  bound,  1,350,000  Geor- 
gians, a  most  interesting  people,  who  claim 
descent  from  Togarmah,  the  great-grandson  of 
Noah.  Christianized  about  330  by  the  nun 
Nuna,  they  have  always,  despite  continuous  in- 
vasion and  persecution,  remained  steadfast  to 
their  faith.  In  1799  they  and  their  last  king 
became  Russian  subjects  as  the  only  means  of 
escaping  the  Persians.  Their  origin  and  lan- 
guage present  problems  unsolved.  Perhaps 
not  Indo-European,  they  certainly  are  not 
Ural-Altaians.  Physically  they  are  of  the 
purest  Caucasian  type,  the  women  remarkable 
for  their  stately  beauty.* 

In  Georgia  was  fertile  Colchis,  the  land  of 
]Medea  and  the  Golden  Fleece,  of  Jason  and 
the  Argo,  considered  by  some  ethnologists  the 
original  home  of  the  Greeks. 

THE   ARMENIANS  t 

The  presence  of  Armenians  in  every  coun- 
try, accentuated  by  their  prominence,  antiquity, 
and  sufferings,  requires  their  inclusion  among 

*  See  "Russia's  Orphan  Races,"  by  Maynard 
O.  Williams,  in  the  National,  Geographic 
Magazine   (October,  1918). 

t  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Mag.\- 
ziNE.  "Armenia  and  the  Armenians,"  by  Hester 
Donaldson  Jenkins  (October,  1915).  and  "Rus- 
sia's Orphan  Races,"  by  Maynard  O.  Williams 
(October,  1918). 


the  races  of  Europe.  They  belong  to  the 
Iranian  branch   of  the  Indo-European   family. 

The  map  indicates  the  region  in  Asia  which 
the  greater  number  of  the  Armenians  now  in- 
habit; it  also  affords  a  general  idea  of  the  situ- 
ation and  extent  of  their  ancient  kingdom.  In 
only  a  small  part  of  this  region  do  the  Ar- 
menians now  constitute  a  majority  of  the  popu- 
lation, which  largely  consists  of  Turks,  Kurds, 
Chaldaeans,  Persians,  Syrians,  and  Bedouins. 

They  claim  to  be  the  oldest  people  in  the 
world.  Their  national  name  is  Haig,  from 
Haig,  their  traditional  progenitor,  a  great- 
great-grandson  of  Noah.  Their  country  is  the 
doorway  and  thoroughfare  between  the  East 
and  West.  It  has  been  tramped  over  by  As- 
syrians, Medes,  Persians,  Greeks,  Parthians, 
Romans,  Byzantines,  Mongols,  Saracens,  Sel- 
juks,  and  Ottoman  Turks,  successively  fighting 
for  its  possession. 

At  the  birth  of  Christ  the  Armenians  were 
Parsees,  fire-worshippers,  followers  of  Zoro- 
aster, but  soon  after  the  Crucifixion  some  be- 
came Christians.  The  preaching  of  Saint  Greg- 
ory the  Illuminator  converted  their  king,  Tiri- 
dates,  who,  with  his  people,  received  baptism 
at  the  end  of  the  third  century,  thus  antedating 
by  several  years  the  conversion  of  Constantine. 
Hence  the  Armenians  were  the  first  nation  to 
accept  Christianity,  their  king  was  the  first 
Christian  sovereign,  and  the  Gregorian  Arme- 
nian is  the  oldest  purely  national  church. 

In  the  fourth  century  Mesrob  invented,  or 
adapted  from  the  Greek,  the  Armenian  alpha- 
bet, still  in  daily  use.  He  also  began  the  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible,  completed  in  410.  A  re- 
ligious character,  never  lost,  was  early  im- 
parted to  Armenian  literature.  This  is  felt 
in  the  writings  of  their  great  historian,  Moses 
of  Khoren. 

Since  the  sixth  century  the  Armenians  have 
never  known  independence.  At  times  they  ex- 
perienced periods  of  tranquillity;  but,  as  sub- 
jects of  rapacious  and  sanguinary  peoples  and 
without  protection  or  security  of  any  sort, 
their  property  and  lives  through  fourteen  hun- 
dred years  hung  upon  a  hair.  Even  before  the 
coming  of  the.  Turks,' there  was  no  outrage  or 
horror  which  they  had  not  many  times  under- 
gone. 

In  mental  keenness  and  manner  of  life  they 
were  the  superiors  of  their  rulers,  whose  cu- 
pidity and  resentment  their  intelligence,  indus- 
try, and  thrift  often  inflamed.  With  a  devo- 
tion surpassed  by  no  age  or  countrj%  they  re- 
mained all  the  time  steadfast  in  their  Christian 
faith  through  a  martyrdom  of  centuries. 

There  has  long  been  a  continuous  emigration 
from  Armenia  to  Constantinople  and  the  West, 
of  late  to  the  United  States.  Not  a  few  as 
merchants  or  bankers  have  amassed  wealth. 
More  than  one  has  served  as  financial  minister 
to  the  Sultan.  Many  are  skilled  artisans,  archi- 
tects, and  engineers. 

An  Armenian  community  is  marked  for  its 
love  of  education.  To  every  Armenian  church 
is  attached  a  school.  Armenian  students  excel 
in  mathematics.     In  general,  whatever   faults 


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470 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    AIAGAZINE 


471 


the  Armenian  has  can  be  traced  to  his  long 
subjection  and  his   environment. 

Most  are  dark,  almost  swarthy,  with  thick, 
black  hair,  heavy  brows,  generous  noses,  mus- 
cular and  stocky  frames,  but  among  them  one 
finds  endless  variety  of  form  and  feature.  Not 
seldom  one  sees  an  Armenian  woman  with  the 
pencilled  eyebrows,  chiselled  features,  and 
Madonna-like  beauty  of  the  Italian;  or  an  Ar- 
menian man  tall,  lithe,  handsome,  finely  pro- 
portioned, fit  model  for  the  sculptor. 

In  conversation  the  Armenian  language  often 
seems  jagged  and  harsh,  but  when  heard  in 
one  of  their  ancient  churches  from  the  lips  of 
some  eloquent!  preacher,  like  the  Patriarch 
Nerses,  it  sounds  majestic  and  awe-compelling, 
like  thunder  among  the  crags. 

The  massacres  of  the  last  four  and  a  half 
years  and  the  deportation  of  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  helpless  victims,  all  countenanced  by 
Berlin,  have  been  the  most  terrible  experiences 
even  in  Armenia's  tragic  life.  The  unimpeach- 
able evidence  of  atrocities  set  forth  in  the 
Bryce  Commission's  report  on  this  theater  of 
war,  and  the  testimony  of  Henry  Morgenthau, 
former  United  States  Ambassador  to  Turkey, 
comprise  one  of  the  most  appalling  indictments 
of  the  Prussian-directed  Turk  in  the  history  of 
mankind. 

THE    TURKO-TATARS 

The  Turko-Tatars  in  Russia  number  about 
4,700,000,  in  great  part  remnants  from  the 
baleful  Empire  of  the  Golden  Horde,  that  held 
Russia  in  subjection  from  1237  to  1481,  and  of 
the  Khanate  of  the  Crimea. 

The  penniless  Bashkirs,  the  snub-nosed  Kara- 
Kirghiz  and  the  Kirghiz-kazaks,  the  broad- 
eared  Kalmucks,  the  Kipchaks  of  Kazan,  and 
the  more  active  Nogais  have  been  restrained 
and  tamed.  Some  are  Moslems,  some  Bud- 
dhists, some  Sheitan  worshippers,  some  no- 
madic, some  sedentary.  The  chief  interest  they 
excite  is  anthropological.  To  the  ethnologist 
they  are  merely  reminders  of  a  merciless  past. 

THE  RU^IANIAXS* 

It  is  a  surprising  fact  that,  adjacent  to  the 
Black  Sea  and  the  mouth  of  the  Danube,  sur- 
rounded by  powerful  Hungarian  and  Slavic 
peoples,  separated  from  Italy  and  all  things 
Italian  by  five  hundred  miles  of  distance  and 
sixteen  hundred  years  of  time,  we  find,  in  the 
words  of  Ubicini,  "A  people  compact  and 
homogeneous,  whose  features,  language,  monu- 
ments, customs  and  very  name  show  its  Italian 
origin." 

Two  expressions  in  a  well-known  handbook 
condense  the  connection  of  ancient  Dacia,  the 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "Notes  on  Rumania"  (December,  1912)  ; 
"Rumania  and  Her  Ambitions,"  by  Frederick 
Moore  (October,  1913)  ;  "Rumania,  the  Pivotal 
State,"  by  James  Howard  Gore  (October, 
1915),  and  "Rumania  and  Its  Rubicon,"  by 
John  Oliver  La  Gorce  (September,  1916). 


modern  Rumania,  with  Rome:  "A.  D.  107, 
Dacia  made  a  province.''  "A.  D.  274,  Dacia 
given  up  to  barbarians."' 

The  first  suggests  the  settlement  of  thou- 
sands of  Roman  families,  the  universal  speak- 
ing of  "lingua  rustica"  by  Roman  soldiers, 
and  the  influx  of  prosperity  that  caused  that 
flourishing  Roman  colony  to  be  called  "Dacia 
Felix."  The  second  suggests  the  abandon- 
ment of  Dacia  to  that  unbroken  chain  of  evils 
and  misfortunes  from  which  the  people  were 
not  delivered  until  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. 

Nevertheless,  such  was  the  virility  of  the 
Rortian  language  and  civilization  and  such  the 
persistence  of  the  Dacians,  that  from  them 
have  been  evolved  the  Rumanians  of  today. 

The  name  Vlach,  by  which,  until  recently 
they  were  commonly  known  abroad,  is  the 
Slavic  rendering  of  Romaioi,  Romans,  which 
the  Dacian  peasants  call  themselves  but  which 
also  means  robust  or  strong.  Their  numerous 
compatriots  who  inhabit  the  Pindus  range  in 
Greece  are  always  spoken  of  as  Kutzo-Vlachs 
or  Lame  Vlachs. 

Yet,  while  the  Rumanians  are  Latin  in  all 
else,  geography  rendered  them  communicants 
of  the  Eastern  Orthodox   Church. 

More  than  once,  when  invaders  held  their 
country  in  subjection  for  generations,  the  peo- 
ple took  refuge  across  the  Danube  or  in  the 
mountains.  Their  historian,  Kogalnitchano. 
asserts  "The  Rumanians  would  not  espouse 
the  women  of  another  nation,"  and  with  satis- 
faction quotes  Gibbon  as  saying,  "The  Vlachs 
are  surrounded  by  barbarians  without  mixing 
with  them." 

After  the  last  Tatar  invasion,  in  the  thir- 
teenth century,  when  the  nomads,  sated  with 
slaughter  and  booty,  had  withdrawn  eastward, 
the  people  gradually  came  back  and  settled  the 
provinces  of  Wallachia  on  the  Danube  and 
Moldavia  between  the  Carpathians  and  the 
Pruth.  Both  were  conquered  by  the  Turks 
two  hundred  years  later.  Turkish  governors, 
called  hospodars,   exploited  the  provinces. 

The  intellectual  national  awakening  of  a 
hundred  j'ears  ago  hastened  their  deliverance. 
Europe  guaranteed  the  two  provinces  au- 
tonomy in  1856.  Three  years  afterward  they 
were  united  as  the  Principality  of  Rumania. 
The  nomination  of  Carol,  a  Hohenzollern 
prince,  as  the  new  ruler  was  approved  by 
popular  vote,  685,069  persons  voting  "Aye"  and 
224  voting  "No."  The  choice  was  happy. 
Prince  until  1881,  then  King  until  1914.  he  and 
the  Queen,  "Carmen  Sylva,"  deserved  and  en- 
joyed the  love  of  their  people.  The  present 
Queen  Marie  is  a  charming,  patriotic  writer. 

Allied  with  Russia,  Rumania  took  an  effec- 
tive part  in  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-8, 
for  which  she  was  ill-requited,  being  obliged 
to  cede  Bessarabia  to  Russia  in  exchange  for  a 
portion  of  "the  land  of  mountains,  fens  and 
iDarren  steppes,"  called  the  Dobrudja.  A  fur- 
ther portion  was  acquired  after  the  Balkan 
war  of  1913. 

The  Dobrudja,  situated  between  the  lower 
Danube  and  the  Black  Sea,  is  capable  of  de- 


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THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


473 


velopment  and  is  of  military  importance, 
Turks,  Tatars,  and  Circassians  are  numerous 
in  its  heterogeneous   population. 

In  Rumania  are  found  a  great  number  of 
Hungarian,  German,  Bulgarian,  and  Serbian 
settlers.  The  entire  population  is  7,508,000. 
In  the  adjacent  provinces  of  Bessarabia,  Buko- 
vina  and  Transylvania,  Rumanians  predomi- 
nate. In  Bulgaria,  Greece,  Hungary  proper 
and  Serbia  are  many  more.  Their  entire 
number,  in  and  outside  the  kingdom,  is  prob- 
ably about  13,000,000. 

The  excess  at  birth  of  males  over  females  is 
greater  among  the  Rumanians  than  among  any 
other  European  people  except  the  Greeks.  Ten- 
dency to  such  excess  is  noticeable  among  most 
Greco-Latins. 

The  Rumanians  have  special  fondness  for 
the  French.  They  are  not  displeased  when 
their  country  is  spoken  of  as  an  Eastern 
France,  and  they  themselves  call  their  capital, 
Bucharest,  "the  Eastern  Paris." 

Rumania,  like)  Belgium,  Montenegro,  and 
Serbia,  has  had  her  full  share  in  the  tragedy 
of  the  just-ended  war.  Surrounded  by  foes, 
isolated  as  she  has  always  been,  further  strug- 
gle only  intensifying  the  horrors  of  the  defeat, 
she  submitted  for  a  time  to  her  conquerors. 

THE  RACES  OF  THE  BALKAN 
PENINSULA  * 

The  Balkan  Peninsula  is  the  most  eastern 
of  the  great  peninsulas  of  southern  Europe.  It 
derives  its  name  from  the  Balkan  Mountains, 
its  central  and  most  distinctive  feature.  Along 
the  Danube,  its  northern  boundary,  ran  the 
natural  route  of  migratory  peoples,  many  of 
whom  were  diverted  southward  by  the  fertile 
and  extensive  plain  which  slopes  from  the  Bal- 
kans to  the  river.  To  the  west  and  south 
sharply  defined  mountain  ranges  offered  abode 
or  asylum  in  their  limited  plateaus  and  fos- 
tered the  growth  of  individual  communities. 

No  other  equal  area  of  185,000  square  miles 
in  Europe  presents  equal  variety  of  contour 
and  surface  and  natural  resources  and,  in  con- 
sequence, such  diversity  of  person  and  occupa- 
tion among  its  inhabitants. 

The  occupants  of  the  peninsula  could  be  held 
together  only  if  they  constituted  a  single  peo- 
ple, united  by  common  sentiments,  or  if  all 
were  under  the  control  of  a  single  supreme 
authority  which  none  of  them  could  resist. 
As  far  as  history  knows,  no  united  people  has 
ever  dwelt  upon  it.  Seldom  and  only  for  a 
time,  has  any  supreme  authority  existed  in  it. 

In  every  age  the  Balkan  Peninsula  is  a  mael- 
strom of  races,  peoples,  languages,  religions, 
and  of  all  conceivable  ambitions  and  passions, 
dashing  and  breaking  themselves  upon  one 
another. 

The  Balkan  Peninsula  includes  Turks.  Alba- 
nians, Greeks,  Bulgarians,  Serbians,  and  Mon- 
tenegrins. 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "The  Changing  Map  of  the  Balkans,"  by 
Frederick  Moore   (February,  IQU)- 


The  political  boundaries  of  these  States  and 
provinces  only  vaguely  coincide  with  the  boun- 
daries of  race  and  language.  Instead,  every- 
where there  is  a  widely  overlapping  border- 
land, in  which  languages  pass  into  one  another, 
where  adjacent  States  put  forward  extravagant 
but  often  honest  claims,  and  where  many  of 
the  inhabitants  themselves  do  not  really  know 
who  they  racially  are  or  where  politically  they 
should  belong.  In  consequence,  an  active  propa- 
ganda has  been  carried  on  for  years  and  large 
sums  of  money  expended  to  develop  inclina- 
tions. 

THE  OTTOMAN   TURKS  * 

The  early  life  of  no  other  Eastern  people  is 
so  definitely  known  as  that  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks. 

Led  by  Ertogrul,  a  Tatar  chief,  nearly  four 
hundred  pagan  nomad  families  wandered  into 
Asia  Minor  about  1230.  They  had  fled  from 
Khorassan  at  the  invasion  of  Jenghiz  Khan. 
Asia  Minor  at  that  time  was  broken  up  into 
numerous  petty  States  and  feudal  districts,  of 
which  the  moribund  Seljuk  Sultanate  of 
Iconium,  or  Roum,  was  the  most  considerable. 

Becoming  voluntary  converts  to  Islam  and 
faithful  allies  of  the  Sultan  Ala-Eddin,  the 
four  hundred  saw  their  prestige  and  power 
rapidly  increase.  Moslems  and  Christian  and 
Jewish  renegades  flocked  to  their  tents.  In 
1281  Osman,  or  Othman,  succeeded  to  leader- 
ship. His  name,  signifying  "Breaker  of  Bones,'' 
was  of  happy  omen  to  his  ferocious  followers. 

On  the  death  of  Ala-Eddin,  last  of  the  Sel- 
juks,  his  kingdom  broke  into  many  fragments 
Osman  undertook  to  conquer  them  all  and  pro- 
claimed himself  "Padiskhahi  ali  Osmani,"  sov- 
ereign of  the  Ottomans.  Flis  people  have  ever 
since  called  themselves  Ottomans,  regarding  as 
insult  or  injury  the  name  Turk  or  barbarian, 
applied  to  them  by  the  Arabs  and  by  the  Euro- 
peans in  general.  The  Arabs,  who  disdain  the 
Turks,  employ  the  name  with  design. 

The  gradual  extension  of  the  Ottoman  Em- 
pire was  due  to  its  first  seven  sultans,  each 
succeeded  by  his  son,  all  ruthless  destroyers. 
The  seventh,  Mohammed  II,  the  Conqueror, 
captured  Constantinople  in  1453.  Continuous 
subsequent  conquests,  reaching  from  Persia  to 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb, 
terrified  Europe.  The  English  prayer-book  to 
this  day,  in  its  Good  Friday  Collect,  makes 
deprecatory  intercession  against  the  "Turks." 

Constantly  receding  since  the  defeat  at 
Vienna  by  the  PoHsh  John  Sobieski,  in  1683, 

*  See  also,  in  N.\tional  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "The  Young  Turk,"  by  Rear  Admiral 
Colby  M.  Chester  (January,  1912)  :  "Grass 
Never  Grows  Where  the  Turkish  Hoof  Has 
Trod,"  by  Sir  Edwin  Pears  (November,  IQ12)  ; 
"The  Possible  Solutions  for  the  Eastern  Prob- 
lem," by  Viscount  James  Bryce  (November, 
1912)  ;  "Life  in  Constantinople,"  by  H.  G. 
Dwight  (December,  1914).  and  "Constantinople 
and  Sancta  Sophia,"  by  Dr.  E.  A.  Grosvenor 
(May,  1915)- 


To  unite  all  the  Jugo-Slavs  has  long  been  tlie  aspiration  of  IcacU-rs  among  the  Croats  an<l 
Slavonians  as  well  as  those  in  the  Kingdom  of  Serbia.  The  ambitious  program  of  these  nation 
builders  includes  the  union  of  Croats,  Slavonians,  Dalmatians,  Bosnians,  llclvats,  Montenegrins, 
and  Serbs  into  one  State.  One  of  the  greatest  obstacles  to  the  proposed  federation  is  the 
religions  antagonism  evidenced  toward  one  another  by  adherents  of  the  Kastern  Orthodox 
Church,  the  Roman  Catholics,  and  the  Moslems.  Powerful  fact(»rs  exist  which  are  favorable 
to  cooperation,  however.  The  peoples  are  racially  one,  and  they  are  confronted  everywhere 
by  foreigners.  It  remains  to  I)e  seen  whether  the  bonds  of  race  and  of  language  are  sufliciently 
strong  to  overcome  the  disruptive  forces  of  internal  political  jealousies  and  religious  animosi- 
ties. Another  serious  diftlculty  whicli  the  statesmen  of  Jugo-Slavia  nu\st  face  is  their  own 
inexperience  in  practical  statecraft  and  the  inexperience  of  their  peoi)le  in  self-govermnent 
(see  page  486). 


474 


Photograph  by  D.  \V.  Iddings,  O  Keystone  View  Company 

IN    JUGO-SLAVIA THE    HUSREf    BEG    IMOSOUE    AND    BAZAAR,    SERAJEVO,    BOSNIA 

Except  the  Montenegrins  and  the  Serbians  in  the  larger  part  of  royal  Serbia,  all  the 
groups  which  are  to  compose  the  nation  of  Jugo-Slavia  have  been  under  the  blighting  domina- 
tion of  alternating  foreign  masters  since  the  Middle  Ages  (see  page  485). 


the  empire  of  the  Ottoman  Turks  now  em- 
braces hardly  more  than  Asia  Minor. 

No  accurate  figures  exist,  but  under  the 
scepter  of  the  Sultan  are  not  more  than  20,- 
000,000  people,  among  whom  about  three-fifths 
may  be  reckoned  as  Ottoman  Turks.  Very 
small,  however,  is  the  proportion  of  original 
Ottomans,  members  of  the  Turkish  group  of 
the  Ural-Altaian  family. 

The  harem,  constantly  replenished  by  women 
from  every  nation,  and  the  continuous  acces- 
sion  of    Christian   and   Jewish   apostates   have 


changed  their  blood  and  transformed  their 
Tatar  type.  The  majority  of  Grand  A'izirs 
and  Capoudan  Pashas  or  heads  of  the  navy 
during  their  first  five  hundred  years  were  of 
Christian  or  Jewish  ancestry. 

The  few  unmodified  Ottomans  are,  whether 
pasha  or  peasant,  of  stately  and  dignified  pres- 
ence, conservative,  contemptuous  of  everything 
foreign.  The  "young  Turks"  affect  European 
customs  and  simulate  European  ideas,  but 
manifest  few  of  the  virtues  of  the  West.  The 
Turk  in  general  is  merciless  in  victory  and  in 


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THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


477 


the  exercise  of  power,  but. abject  and  harmless 
in  defeat.  There  is  no  more  cruel  master; 
there  is  none  more  submissive  when  subdued. 
The  Ottoman  administration,  always  con- 
suming, never  producing,  but  repressive  of  pro- 
duction, has  blasted  every  people  it  controlled. 
Even  the  Turks  themselves,  impoverished  and 
oppressed,  diminish  in  numbers.  The  govern- 
ment, based  solely  on  force,  has  always  ruth- 
lessly employed  any  means  to  prolong  its  ex- 
istence. It  has  shrunk  from  no  enormity  of 
massacre  or  extermination.  Hundreds  of  years 
ago  it  adopted  the  color  of  blood  for  its  flag, 
and  a  formal  title  of  the  Sultan  is  "Hounkiar," 
or  the  Slayer  of  Men. 

THE    ALBANIANS  * 

The  Albanians  occupy  a  territory  east  of  the 
Adriatic,  roughly  corresponding  to  ancient 
Epirus  and  southern  Illyricum.  Their  origin 
and  language  present  many  difficulties.  Pro- 
fessor Ripley  believes  they  are  "indigenous  to 
their  country."  Dr.  Deniker  calls  them  "a  sepa- 
rate Adriatic  or  Dinaric  race."  It  is  reasona- 
ble to  regard  them  as  the  most  ancient  people 
of  southeastern  Europe,  descendants  of  the 
Pelasgi. 

Their  language  is  supposed  to  be  the  sole 
survivor  of  the  primitive  Thraco-Illyrian  group. 
Its  vocabulary  is  encumbered  with  many  Greek, 
Latin,  Italian,  Slavic,  and  Turkish  words,  but 
the  grammar  is  its  own. 

The  Albanians  show  remarkable  racial  te- 
nacity. Albanian  communities  in  Italy  and 
Sicily,  dating  from  the  fifteenth  century  and 
having  a  population  of  over  200,000,'  have  fused 
little  with  the  Italians,  and  in  marked  degree 
retain  their  own  language  and  customs.  So  to 
less  extent  do  200,000  Albanians  domesticated 
in  Greece. 

Disdain  of  foreigners  and  pride  of  ancestry, 
though  ignorant  of  what  that  ancestry  is,  keep 
them  apart.  This  pride  and  their  mountain  life 
have  fostered  a  passionate  love  of  independ- 
ence. Grote  describes  them  as  "poor,  rapacious, 
fierce,  and  formidable  in  battle,"  but  they  have 
many  virtues,  are  faithful,  generous,  and  hos- 
pitable. Nowhere  is  a  woman  safer  than  in 
their  wild  mountains. 

Known  by  foreigners  as  Albanians,  people 
of  the  snow-land,  they  call  themselves  skipe- 
tari,  or  mountaineers.  At  home  and  abroad 
thev  number  about  1,500,000.  Of  their  numer- 
ous" tribes,  the  Catholic  Mirdites,  who  allow  no 
Moslem  in  their  vicinity,  are  the  most  impor- 
tant and  powerful. 

The  river  Shkumbi,  along  which  may  still  be 
traced  the  Roman  Egnatian  Way,  separates  the 
Christian  Albanians  into  two  groups,  north- 
ward, the  Roman  Catholic  Ghegs ;  southward, 
the  Greek  Orthodox  Toscs.  The  former  use 
the  Latin  alphabet,  the  latter  the  Greek  alpha- 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "The  Albanians,"  by  Theron  J.  Damon 
(November,  IQ12)  ;  "Recent  Observations  m 
Albania."  by  Brig.  Gen.  George  P.  Scnven 
(August,  1918). 


bet.  They  have  no  accepted  alphabet  of  their 
own,  though  many  attempts,  some  of  them 
curious,  have  been  made  to  supply  the  lack.  At 
least  half  the  Albanians  are  Moslems,  result  of 
conquest,  who  will  gradually  return  to  their 
former  Christian  faith  or  emigrate. 

George  Castriota,  or  Scanderbeg,  who  de- 
feated the  Turks  continuously  through  twenty 
years,  is  their  national  hero.  Marco  Bozzaris, 
of  whom  Fitz-Greene  Halleck  wrote,  "At  mid- 
night in  his  guarded  tent,"  was  also  an  Alba- 
nian. So  was  ]\Iahomet  Ali  Pasha,  the  fore- 
most Moslem  figure  of  the  nineteenth  century. 

European  statecraft  never  showed  itself  more 
humorous  than  when,  in  1913,  it  designated  the 
timorous  Prince  of  Weid  to  be  king  of  the 
Albanians. 

THE   GREEKS  * 

A  map  of  Greek  settlements,  as  they  existed 
in  the  sixth  century  before  the  Christian  era, 
would  serve  as  a  map  of  the  lands  they  inhabit 
today.  Their  colonists  in  southern  France  and 
southern  Italy  have  merged  in  the  modern 
Frenchman  and  Italian.  Otherwise,  the  Greece 
of  five  hundred  years  before  Christ  and  the 
Greece  of  nineteen  hundred  and  eighteen  years 
after  Christ  coincide. 

Torrents  of  invasion  have  flooded  Greece — 
Goths,  Venetians,  Lombards,  French,  Germans, 
Ottomans,  Albanians,  Vlachs,  many  of  whom 
have  permanently  remained.  Constantine  Por- 
phyrogenitus  wrote,  in  the  tenth  century,  "All 
Greece  has  become  Slav."  Henri  de  Valen- 
ciennes, in  the  thirteenth  century,  thought 
Greece  had  become  French.  Fallmerayer,  in 
the  nineteenth  century,  demonstrated  that  the 
Greeks  have  "hardly  a  drop  of  true  Greek 
blood  in  their  veins." 

A  subject  people  since  their  conquest  by  the 
Romans,  through  three  centuries  serfs  of  west- 
ern Europe,  the  next  three  centuries  slaves  to 
Turks,  the  Greeks  have  known  freedom  only 
since  those  seven  years  of  horror  which  we 
call  the  Greek  Revolution  (1821-8). 

Yet  their  civilization  was  able  to  permeate 
the  Eastern  Roman  Empire,  so  that  after  the 
seventh  century  the  latter  is  called  the  Greek 
or  Byzantine.  Until  early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  all  Turkish  Christian  subjects  in  the 
peninsula  were  considered  Greeks.  Their  im- 
perishable language,  daily  heard  in  the  ritual 
of  their  Church,  was  and  is  spoken,  in  however 
debased  and  corrupt  a  form,  by  Greeks  every- 
where. 

Yet  despite  decimation  and  an  almost  unlim- 
ited intermingling  of  foreign  elements,  the 
Greek  remains  the  same  in  physical  features, 
manner  of  life  and  occupation,  and  personal 
characteristics   and   tastes.     His   face   is   still 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine "Greece  and  Montenegro"  (March,  1913)- 
and  "Greece  of  Today,"  by  U.  S.  Senator 
George  Higgins  Moses  (October,  1915),  and 
^'Saloniki,"  by  H.  G.  Dwight  (September, 
1916). 


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THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


479 


oval,      his      complexirui 

olive,   his   hair   abundair 

and  black,  his  eyes  lunii 

nous  and  dark,  his  figun 

slight  and   supple.     Only 

seldom  doesi  one  meet  a 

light-complexioned,   light 

haired  Greek. 
He  is  still  at  home  upi  h  i 

the    sea.      The    carryiii-: 

trade     of     the      easten 

Mediterranean    and     th' 

Black    Sea  is   largely   in 

his   hands.     In    1916,   of 

2,658    steamers    entering 

the    Piraeus,    the    harbor 

of     Athens,     2,494    "\vci'i^' 

under     the     Greek     flag. 

His  little  sailing  vessels, 

averaging    250    tons    ca- 

pacit}-,     are     numerous 

throughout  ithe  Levant. 
He    is    an    enterprising 

and  ambitious  tradesman, 

frugal    and    industrious. 

Many  of  the  great  bank- 
ing   houses    of    southern 

Europe  are  Greek. 

As    with   the    ancients, 

so   with   the   moderns,    a 

chief  diversion  or  occu- 
pation   is    politics.      Yet 

modern   Greece   has   not 

produced   a   single  great 

statesman    except    Veni- 

zelos,   himself  a    Cretan. 
The  people  are  not  re- 
sponsible   for   the   short- 
comings and  mistakes  of 

their  government  in  this 

just -ended    war.      They 

live  under  a  monarchical 

system,  thrust  upon  them 

by     the     Great     Powers, 

after      their      successful 

Revolution  of  1821-8,  and 

contrary  to  their  instincts 

and  desires.     Hence  they 

missed  an  opportunity  in 

the     world     struggle    to 

Strike   a   blow    for    free- 
dom    and    humanity    as 

well  as  for  themselves — 

an    opportunity    such    as 

may  never  come  to  them 

again.       Their    king,     a 

German     sympathizer, 

since  dethroned,  was  able  to  block  the  national 

will  and  disappoint  all  its  aspirations. 

In  consequence  of  the  Balkan  wars  of  1912 

and  1913  there  were  added  to  the  kingdom 
about  1,400,000  Greeks  formerly  Turkish  sub- 
jects. A  little  later  Crete  was  united  to  Greece. 
The  present  population  is  about  5,000,000. 

The  excess  of  males  at  birth  over  females  is 
greater  among  the  Greeks  than  among  any 
other  people  of  Europe. 


Photograph  by  Pauline  H.  Dederer 
A    DALMATIAN    PEASANT    PASSING    THROUGH    THE    PORTA 
PLOCE,    RAGUSA 

Until  180S,  Ragusa,  proudest  of  Dalmatian  towns,  maintained  its- 
nominal  independence,  but  at  various  times  during  the  Middle  Ages 
it  came  under  the  protection  of  Venice,  of  Hungary,  and  of  Turkey. 
The  Winged  Lion  of  St.  i\Iark  above  the  gateway  testifies  to  the 
sway  of  Venice  centuries  ago.  At  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century  Napoleon  annexed  Ragusa  to  his  newly  established  "King- 
dom of  Illyria."  From  1S14  up  to  the  present  time  the  city  has  been 
an  Austrian  possession. 


THE)   BULGARIANS  "^ 

The  Bulgarians  are  of  Finno-Ugrian  origin. 
They  derive  their  name  from  the  river  Volga,. 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "Bulgaria,  the  Peasant  State"  (Novem- 
ber, 1908)  ;  "The  Rise  of  Bulgaria,"  by  James 
D.  Bouchier  (November,  1912)  ;  "Bulgaria  and 
Its  Women."  by  Hester  Donaldson  Jenkins 
(April,   1915)- 


480 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


Fliotograph  by  Erdciyi 
CROATIAN    MEN    IN    NATIVE   COSTUME:   THE   SKIRTS   ARE    IN    REALITY    VERY    BAGGY 
TROUSERS    (SEE    NEXT    PAGE) 

The  Serbs  and  Croats  belong  to  the  same  branch  of  the  Slav  race.  The  chief  difference 
between  them  is  religious  and,  to  a  less  extent,  linguistic.  Their  literary  language  is  the  same, 
save  that  the  Croats  employ  the  Latin  alphabet,  while  the  Serbs  use  a  modified  form  of  the 
Cyrillic  or  Russian  (see  Jugo-Slavia,  page  485). 


on  which  the  early  kingdom  of  Greater  Bul- 
garia arose  in  the  fifth  century.  Erom  the 
Volga  their  Khan  led  some  of  their  wild  horse- 
men in  679.  They  crossed  the  Danube  and 
subdued  the  Slavs  on  its  south  bank,  l-'cw  in 
number,  they  gradually  merged  witii  the  Slavic 
inhabitants.  When  Ciiristiaiiized  in  tiie  ninth 
century  by  the  Greek  missionaries.  Saint  Cyril 
and  Saint  Afethodius,  the  fusion  became  com- 
plete. 

The  name  Bulgarian  remained,  but  in  lan- 
guage, institutions,  and  customs  the  entire  peo- 
ple was  Slavic.  The  Bulgarians  are  rightly 
reckoned  a  Slavic  people. 


They  subjugated  all  the  northern  part  of  the 
peninsula  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  .Adriatic. 
Later  their  kingdom  broke  into  two  parts,  both 
to  be  overthrown  by  tlie  Byzantine  emperors. 
Successful  rebellion  enabled  them  to  found  a 
second  more  powerful  empire,  over  whicii  their 
greatest  Tsar,  Ascn  II,  reigned  wisely  an<l  well. 

Then  came  decline.  The  Bulgarians  paid 
tribute  to  the  Serbian  king,  Dushan.  The  Otto- 
man Turks  forced  the  last  Bulgarian  king  to 
become  a  vassal  of  the  Sultan  and  to  yield  his 
sister  to  the  harem.  There  followed  five 
centuries  of  indescribable  Turkish  domination. 
Many   Bulgarians   !)eraino    Moslems,   they   and 


THE    NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


48J 


Photograph  by  Erdelyi 

CROATIAN    MAN    AND   VVlFli  :    COS'iXV    TllKlK    IIAUITS    AS    TliKlR    PURSE    CAN    BUY,    AND 
OFT  EXPRESSED  IN   FANCY,   RICH   AND   GAUDY 

Before  the  war,  market  day  in  Agram,  the  capital  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  was  a  pic- 
turesque occasion,  with  the  peasants  resplendent  in  their  gaily  colored  embroideries  on  white 
garments,  their  bright  shoes  and  mantles.  The  life  of  many  of  these  peasants  is  extremely 
iiard,  and  in  some  families  the  women  are  said  to  wear  no  clothing  above  their  waists  while 
indoors. 


their  descendants  to  be  known  as  Pomaks. 
Many  fled  the  country.  By  the  Russo-Turkish 
War  of  1877-78,  Russia  freed  Bulgaria. 

The  emancipated  State,  called  the  Princi- 
pality of  Bulgaria,  included  only  the  region 
north  of  the  Balkans.  To  it  was  added,  by 
popular  revolution,  seven  years  later,  the  prov- 
ince of  Eastern  Roumelia,  south  of  the  Bal- 
kans. Bulgaria,  though  free,  was  made  by  the 
Great  Powers  tributary  to  the  Sultan  as  a  vas- 


sal State.  In  190S  it  declared  itself  independ- 
ent, and  the  prince  proclaimed  himself  "Tsar 
of  all  the  Bulgarians." 

Many  Bulgarians,  Greeks,  and  Serbians  still 
remained  under  the  Turkish  yoke.  To  free 
their  fellow  countrymen  and  coreligionists,  al- 
lied Bulgaria,  Greece,  Montenegro,  and_  Serbia 
made  successful  war  against  the  Turks  in  1912. 
For  the  first  time  the  four  Balkan  Christian 
States  acted  together. 


THE    CROATIAN    PEASANTS    ARE    ESPECIALLY    FOND    OF    OUTWARD    SHOW 

Wedding  processions,  such  as  that  shown  in  this  photograph,  afford  opportunit\'  for  the 
display  of  all  the  finery  of  the  countryside.  The  native  costume  is  distinguished  by  a  wealth 
of  stitchery.  The  influence  of  the  East  is  indicated  in  the  white  garments  loosely  fashioned. 
Physically,  the  Croatian  is  a  tall,  strong,  clean-looking  individual,  with  steel-blue  eyes  and 
straight,  fair  hair  (see  page  486). 


A    CROATIAN    WKDUING    I'KOCKSSION,    ACCOM  I'A  M  l-ll 
STHI  NGKD    OKCI!  KSTKA 


I'liutuKiaplis  by  Jiiticlyi 
A     I'KKirATETIC 


111  twenty  years,  from  iSSo  to  jqoo,  tlic  Croats  increased  in  inniilier  l)y  3.^  per  ciiit,  due 
to  a  low  death  rate  and  a  very  high  marriage  and  birth  rate.  Like  all  Soutli  Slavic  peoples, 
there  is  a  large  preponderance  of  male  over  female  cliildren  in  Croatian  families. 


482 


THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


483 


That  union  did  not  long  continue.  Each  put 
forth  extravagant  claims  regarding  the  na- 
tionality of  the  people  they  had  freed.  In 
Macedonia,  where  a  pell-mell  of  races  spreads 
round  ]\Ionastir,  their  claims  were  most  violent. 
Turkish  rule  had  deadened  national  sense 
among  the  newly  liberated.  Many  did  not 
know  whether  they  were  Bulgarians,  Greeks, 
or  Serbians. 

In  1913  Bulgaria,  without  warning,  suddenly 
attacked  her  allies,  Greece  and  Serbia,  and  was 
decisively  beaten.  In  1915,  utterly  indifferent 
to  the  world-issues  involved,  she  joined  the 
Teutonic  Powers,  believing  that  their  success 
was  assured  and  that  thereby  she  would  ad- 
vance her  interests.  .In  1918,  sensing  their  im- 
pending defeat,  she  abandoned  her  allies  in  the 
field  and  made  peace. 

In  the  lamentable  events  of  the  last  six 
years  it  is  just  to  discriminate  between  the 
Bulgarians  and  the  unscrupulous  German 
Prince  who  was  their  Tsar.  The  docile  people 
submitted  and  followed  but  they  did  not  ini- 
tiate or  perhaps  desire  the  tortuous,  inglorious 
policy  of  their  sovereign. 

In  1917  the  Bulgarians  constituted  three- 
fourths  of  the  5.518,000  inhabitants  of  the 
country,  practically  all  communicants  of  the 
Eastern  Orthodox  Church.  The  more  than 
700,000  Turks  or  Pomaks  were  raoidly  being 
absorbed. 

Bulgarian  is  called  "at  once  the  most  ancient 
and  most  modern"  of  Slavic  languages.  The 
grammar  shows  modern  tendencies,  but  the  lin- 
guistic groundwork  is  in  close  affinity  with  the 
oldest  written  Slavic  dialect,  that  of  the 
Church. 

The  Bulgarian  birth-rate  in  1910  was  forty- 
one  to  every  one  thousand  persons.  In  191 1 
the  excess  of  births  over  deaths  was  18.35  per 
1,000  persons — a  larger  excess  than  among  any 
other  people  of  Europe. 

The  Bulgarians  are  a  sturdy,  sober,  indus- 
trious, practical  people.  While  not  vivacious 
or  emotional,  their  parental  and  filial  affection 
is  marked.  Materialistic  rather  than  idealistic, 
they  nevertheless  appreciate  education  for 
their  daughters  as  well  as  for  their  sons. 

THE    SERBIANS  * 

The  Serbians  first  appear  as  a  confederation 
of  Slavic  tribes,  which,  together  with  their  near 
kin,  the  Croats,  inhabited  the  northern  slope  of 
the  Carpathians.  In  the  seventh  century  the 
two  occupied  side  by  side  all  the  west  and 
northwest  of  the  peninsula.  Both  recognized 
the  Byzantine  Emperor  as  suzerain. 

The  Serbians  spread  far  and  wide  over  pres- 
ent Serbia,  northern  Albania,  Montenegro,  Bos- 
nia, Herzegovina,  and  possibly  farther  north. 
The  Croats  settled  to  the  northwest. 

Christianized  before  any  other   Slavic  tribe, 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "Serbia  and  jNIontenegro"  (November, 
1908),  and  "The  Kingdom  of  Serbia,"  by  Wil- 
liam Joseph  Showalter  (April,  1915)- 


geography  brought  the  Serbians  who  lived 
eastward  into  the  Eastern  Orthodox  Church 
and  carried  the  Croats  living  westward  into 
the  Roman  Church.  Internal  dissensions  re- 
tarded their  growth.  Vassals  alternately  of 
Bulgarians  and  Byzantines,  they  did  not  at- 
tain independence  until  the  twelfth  century. 

Though  the  Serbian  kingdom  lasted  little 
more  than  three  hundred  years,  two  of  its 
Tsars  render  it  illustrious,  Stephen  Dushan  the 
Great  and  Laza. 

Ably  seconded  by  his  Bulgarian  wife,  tlie 
Tsaritza  Helen,  Dushan  united  nearly  all  the 
peninsula  in  the  effort  to  crush  the  menacing 
Turkish  power  but  died  suddenly  on  his  march 
to  Constantinople.  In  lofty  aim  and  ability  as 
legislator,  diplomat  and  warrior,  this  dimly- 
seen  eastern  Tsar  is  one  of  the  grandest 
figures  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

Lazar  took  up  the  task  of  Dushan  but  fell, 
betrayed  and  gloriously  fighting,  in  1389  at  the 
battle  of  Kossova  on  the  Plains  of  Amsel. 
Serbia  prostrate,  but  with  spirit  unbroken,  re- 
sisted for  seventy  years,  but  was  made  a  pash- 
alik  of  the  Sultan  soon  after  the  fall  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

The  heiduks,  guerrilla  Robin  Hoods  of  the 
peninsula,  in  the  mountains  and  forests  car- 
ried on  the  fight  against  the  Turks.  In  1804. 
led  by  the  swineherd  Kara  George,  the  Serbian 
people  rose  en  masse.  After  twenty-five  bloody 
years,  in  the  Russo-Turkish  treaty  of  Adrian- 
ople  the  Sultan  recognized  their  autonomy. 
A  new  leader,  Milosch  Obrenovitch,  had 
arisen. 

The  savage  rivalry  of  the  Karageorgevitch 
and  Obrenovitch  families,  though  unattended  by 
civil  war,  reddens  the  story  of  Serbia.  Three 
of  the  former  and  five  of  the  latter  have  reigned. 
The  Obrenovitches  became  extinct  in  1903. 

The  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78  resulted 
in  the  full  independence  of  Serbia  which  pro- 
claimed herself  a  kingdom  four  years  later. 
Enraged  at  the  union  of  Bulgaria  and  Eastern 
Roumelia,  Serbia  in  1885  declared  war  but 
was  decisively  beaten  at  Slivnitza.  More 
worthy  was  the  Balkan  war  of  1912  when  Ser- 
bia, together  with  Bulgaria,  Greece,  and  Mon- 
tenegro, freed  the  Christian  subjects  of  the 
Ottomans.  In  the  Balkan  war  of  the  follow- 
ing year  she  was  victorious  over  Bulgarian 
attack. 

The  story  of  the  Austrian  ultimatum,  of 
three  invasions  of  Serbian  territory  by  the 
Austrians,  each  time  repulsed,  and  of  her  des- 
perate resistance  against  the  combined  Aus- 
trian, Bulgarian,  and  German  armies,  forms  an 
essential  chapter  of  the  just-ended  war. 

The  kingdom  is  inhabited  by  4,616,000  peo- 
ple, almost  exclusively  Serbian.  It  is  the  Pied- 
mont of  the  newly  formed  Jugo-Slav  confed- 
eracy. The  number  of  Serbians  resident  in 
former  Austria-Hungary  may  be  reckoned  as 
5,000,000,  in  great  part  descendants  of  the  ex- 
patriated after  Kossova.  Professor  Pupin, 
educator  and  inventor,  is  a  Serbian. 

Without  harshness,  the  Serbian  language  is 
an   almost   perfect   instrument    for  poetry  and 


48-4 


THE   XATIOXAL   GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


music.  Tlie  Czech  Schaffarik  says: 
"Serbian  song  resembles  the  tune  of  the 
violin ;  old  Slavonian,  that  of  the  or- 
gan;  Polish,  that  of  the  guitar.  Old 
Slavonian  sounds  like  the  loud  rush  of 
the  mountain  stream :  Polish,  like  the 
sparkling  and  bubbling  of  a  fountain  ; 
Serbian,  like  the  quiet  murmuring  of  a 
streamlet  in  tiie  valley." 

Few  very  rich,  none  very  poor,  a 
pauper  unknown  before  1914,  each 
family  owning  its  own  homestead,  how- 
ever small,  demf)cratic  in  the  extreme, 
loving  former  Queen  Natalie  because 
'■she_  walks  tiie  streets  bareheaded  with 
flowing  hair,"  vivacious  and  quick  in 
movement,  unsuspicious  and  opcn- 
lianded,  equal  to  the  Belgians  in  suffer- 
ing, heroism,  and  glory.  Out  of  the 
furnace  the  Serbians  are  emerging,  a 
trustworthy,  steadfast,  self-reliant  peo- 
ple (see  also  Jugo-Slavia,  page  485). 

TIIE    MOXTEXKC.RIXS  =■' 

According  to  the  Slavic  legend,  the 
Almighty,  when  sliaping  the  earth,  car- 
ried a  great  bag  filled  with  mountains 
which  he  was  sowing  as  a  farmer  sows 
grain.  East  of  the  Adriatic  the  bag 
broke,  the  mountains  fell  out.  took  root 
and  produced  the  craggy  masses  of  the 
Tserna  Gora,  or  Black  Mountain,  or 
^lonte  Negro. 

The  ]\Iontenegrins  as  a  people  are  the 
incarnation  of  heroism  and  freedom. 
.\fter  their  kingdom  was  destroyed  at 
Kossova,  a  handful  of  Serbians,  who 
would  neither  emigrate  nor  submit, 
took  refuge  in  these  mountains.  Shut 
off  from  outside  help,  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  Ottoman  Turks,  many.timcs 
attacked  by  apparently  resistless  armies 
which  they  always  defeated,  scorning 
even  nominal  allegiance  to  the  Turk  or 
any  other  power,  from  1380  to  1916 
they  maintained  their  savage  independ- 
ence. 

Resistance  to  the  Turk  was  the  domi- 
nant motive  of  their  social  and  political 
life.  Their  ruler  was  a  vladika  or 
bishop  because,  as  sacrosanct,  he  would 
be  invulnerable  to  Moslem  attacks  or 
bribes.  Succession,  which  had  been 
from  uncle  to  nephew,  became  heredi- 
tary in  185 1. 

Tlie  Sultan  formally  recognized  their 
independence  in  1799.  So  did  all  Eu- 
rope seventy-nine  years  later. 

Tiiis  tiny  State,  after  st.mding  for 
centuries   as   the   only  beacon    light  of 

*  Sec  also,  in  N.\tion'.\l  Gi:oc.r.\phic 
Mac.azini:.  "Where  East  Meets  West" 
(l)almatia,  Montenegro,  and  Herzego- 
vina), by  Marion  Cruger  ColVin  (May. 
1908)  ;  "Ivist  of  the  Adriatic"  (  Dalma- 
tia,  Montenegro,  Bosnia,  and  Herzego- 
vina), by  Kenneth  McKcnzie  (Dccem- 
I)er,  19 IJ). 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


485. 


HUNGARIAN   PEASANTS    IN   SUNDAY  DRESS    KNEELING   AS   A   RELIGIOUS 
PROCESSION   PASSES 

The  geographical  location  of  a  town  in  Hungary  or  Austria  in  which  a  person  lives  less 
frequently  affords  a  probable  index  to  his  racial  status  than  in  any  other  country  in  the 
world.  There  has  never  been  any  such  being  linguistically  or  racially  as  an  Austro-Hun- 
garian  in  the  sense  that  there  are  Frenchmen,  or  Englishmen,  or  Spaniards.  The  empire  of 
the  Hapsburgs  was  a  confused  conglomeration  of  peoples  of  divergent  religious  and  political 
faiths  and  of  antagonistic  blood  ties. 


freedom  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  was  over- 
whelmed for  a  time  by  the  Teutonic  Powers  in 
1916. 

Tliere  are  about  400,000  Montenegrins.  They 
are  of  tall,  large,  and  erect  figure.  Their  char- 
acteristics are  those  of  liberty-loving  moun- 
taineers who  have  lived  apart  and  distrust 
strangers.  Their  women  are  brave,  loyal,  and 
implacable  as  themselves.  "The  word  of  a 
Montenegrin  was  never  broken."  Elena, 
daughter  of  King  Nicholas  I,  is  wife  to  Victor 
Emmanuel  II  and  Queen  of  Italy  (see  also 
Jugo-Slavia). 

JUGO-SLAVIA 

To  unite  all  the  Jugo-Slavs  has  long  been  the 
aspiration  of  leaders  among  the  Croats  and 
Slavonians  as  well  as  those  in  the  Kingdom  of 
Serbia.  They  wished  to  include  the  Bosnians, 
Helvats,  Croats,  Slavonians,  Dalmatians,  and 
Slovenes,  former  Austro-Hungarian,  or  still 
earlier  Turkish,  subjects,  as  well  as  the  inde- 
pendent South  Slavic  States  of  Montenegro  (see 


page  484),  Serbia  (see  page  483),  and  Bulgaria 
(see  page  479)- 

The  world  war  has  extended  this  desire,  ex- 
cept that  it  no  longer  includes  Bulgaria.  When 
Bulgaria  allied  herself  with  the  Turks,  who 
through  centuries  had  trampled  upon  the  Slavs, 
and  sent  her  armies  to  work  their  savage  will 
upon  the  Serbians,  she  outraged  Slavic  feeling 
more  than  her  mere  alignment  with  their  com- 
mon foe,  the  Central  Powers,  could  have  done. 

One  obstacle  to  federal  union  is  difference  of 
church  communion.  Most  of  the  Jugo-Slavs 
are  Eastern  Orthodox,  the  remainder,  except 
those  who  are  Moslems,  Roman  Catholic.  Ob- 
ligations to  Islam  rest  lightly  on  the  peninsular 
Moslems  and  they  will  eventually  join  one  or 
the  other  church. 

The  Roman  Clnirch  has  allowed  the  Dalma- 
tian, Slavonian,  and  Croatian  Catholics,  almost 
interruptedly  since  their  conversion,  to  use  the 
Slavic  instead  of  the  Latin  liturg\\  and  to  em- 
ploy their  Glagolithic,  or  Cyrillic  Slavic,  alpha- 
bet. Against  this  custom  there  has  been,  mostly 
during  the  last  generation,  foreign  protest, 
based  on  political  grounds.     An  attempt,  how- 


486 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


ever,  to  enforce  the  Latin  ritual  would  prob- 
ably swing  the  dissident  Jugo-Slavs  into  the 
Eastern  Orthodox  Church. 

Another  obstacle  to  federal  union  is  inex- 
perience in  self-government  on  the  part  of  the 
several  groups.  Except  the  Montenegrins,  and 
the  Serbians  in  the  larger  part  of  royal  Serbia, 
all  the  groups  have  been  under  the  blighting 
domination  of  alternating  foreign  masters, 
mainlv  Turks,  Austrians.  and  Magyars,  since 
the  Middle  Ages.  The  federal  system  is  of  all 
systems  the  most  difficult  and  complex,  requir- 
ing the  largest  degree  not  only  of  skill,  but  of 
self-adjustment  and  self-control.  Yet  upon 
such  a  Ship  of  State  these  Slavic  landsmen 
would  embark  as  officers  and  crew  in  a  stormy 
sea. 

To  the  majority  of  these  people  the  idea  of 
union  is  novel,  until  recently  entertained  only 
by  some  score  of  dreamers,  who,  while  Turk- 
ish or  Austro-Hungarian  subjects  themselves, 
hardly  believed  in  its  possibility  of  realization. 
Nor  do  all  the  groups  equally  desire  union, 
even  now.  The  Slovenes,  for  example,  are  not 
over-enthusiastic  for  it.  In  some  respects  the 
situation  is  analogous  to  that  of  the  thirteen 
American  States  after  the  Revolution  and  be- 
fore the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 

Powerful  factors  exist  favorable  to  cooper- 
ation. The  peoples  are  racially  one,  confronted 
everywhere  by  foreigners.  Despite  rninor  local 
differences,  they  possess  in  the  Serbian  a  lan- 
guage intelligible  to  all,  though  in  less  degree 
to  the  Slovene,  spoken  by  the  great  majority, 
the  literary  language  of  Croat,  Bosnian,  Helvat, 
Slavonian,  Serbian,  and  in  part  of  the  Dalma- 
tian.    Bonds  of  race  and  language  are  strong. 

There  is  practical  absence  of  inherited  ani- 
mosities. The  fact  is  recognized  that  whoever 
of  them  fought  in  the  Austro-Hungarian  ranks 
did  so  under  military  compulsion.  There  is 
also  appreciative  recognition  of  decimated  Ser- 
bia's natural  leadership. 

The  one  compelling  factor  is  the  conscious- 
ness that  unless  united  the  political  existence 
of  any  of  them  is  most  insecure. 

In  the  attempt  of  the  Jugo-Slavs  to  rule 
themselves  in  the  only  possil)le  way,  they  arc 
entitled  to  the  sympathy  and  patience  of  all 
who  believe  in  self-government  by  the  people. 

TIIIC   BOSNIANS 

For  the  boundaries  of  the  provinces  on  the 
east  shore  of  the  Adriatic  political  gerryman- 
der is  responsible,  begun  before  America  was 
discovered.  The  inhabitants,  subjects  until  re- 
cently of  Austria-Hungary,  are  Bosnians.  Hcl- 
vats,  Croats,  Dalmatians,  Slavonians,  and  Slo- 
venes— a  perplexing  medley  of  Slavic  peoples, 
among  whom  are  found  a  few  Jews  and  for- 
eigners. 

The  Bosnians,  so  namerl  from  the  river 
Bosiia,  are  Serbians  and  Croats,  who  for  a 
time  maintained  a  small  and  not  powerful  king- 
dom under  a  ruler  called  Ban.  They  arc 
strongly  drawn  by  sympathy  and  interest  to 
their  kinsmen  in  royal  Serbia.  At  their  capital, 
Serajevo,  occurred  on  June  2S,  1914,  the  :is- 
sassination  of  tin;  Austrian  Crown  Prince  and 


his    wife,   the    Duchess   of    Hohenberg,    which 
preluded  the  European  war. 

TiiF.  hi:lv.\ts 

The  Helvats,  or  Herzegovinians,  who  are 
Serbians  and  Croats,  are  appropriately  named, 
their  district  having  been  lopped  off  from 
Bosnia  for  the  advantage  of  a  Herzog  or  Arch- 
duke. 

THE    CROATS  * 

The  Croats  were  long  intimately  connected 
with  the  Serbians,  whom  they  greatly  resemble. 
In  1908  the  Austro-Hungarian  sovereign  ap- 
propriated the  Turkish  provinces  of  Bosnia 
and  Herzegovina,  ninety-eight  per  cent  of 
whose  two  million  inhabitants  are  Serbians  or 
Croats.  There  is  no  such  unanimity  in  their 
religion.  Forty-two  per  cent  are  Eastern  Ortho- 
dox, calling  themselves  Serbians;  twenty-eight 
per  cent  Roman  Catholics,  calling  themselves 
Helvats.  and  twenty  per  cent  Moslems,  calling 
themselves    Turks. 

THE    D.\LMATI.\NS  f 

The  Dalmatians  occupy  a  long,  narrow, 
mountainous  fringe  of  coast  land  and  islamls 
east  of  the  Adriatic.  They  were  often  called 
Pagani  or  Pagans  in  derision  as  being  the  last 
of  the  Slavs  to  embrace  Christianity.  Immi- 
grating in  great  numbers  they  quickly  absorbed 
the  native  population  and  retained  their  own 
characteristics.  Just  as  the  Slavs  gave  the 
name  of  Vlachs  to  the  Latin-speaking  Ruma- 
nians, so  the  Slavic  invaders  of  Dalmatia  called 
the  Latinized  people  they  found  there  Vlachs, 
or  Mavro  -  Vlachs  —  Black  Vlachs.  In  the 
whirligig  of  language,  Morlach,  a  corruption 
of  Mavro-Vlach,  has  become  the  term  by  which 
Dalmatian  Slavs  are  commonly  known  in  Eng- 
lish. 

The  dalmatic,  or  ceremonial  outer  robe,  worn 
by  the  Roman  Catholic  clergy  at  the  divine 
office  and  by  sovereigns  at  coronations,  was  in- 
troduced into  Rome  in  the  second  century  from 
Dalmatia,  where  it  was  used  only  by  the  no- 
bility. 

Dalmatia,  a  shuttlecock  between  Venice  and 
Hungary,  never  experienced  a  national  exist- 
ence. During  the  last  two  centuries  it  has 
been  the  alternate  possession  of  Venice,  France 
and  Austria.  It  furnished  many  of  the  best 
sailors  in  the  Austrian  navy. 

THE  SLOVENES  OR   WENDS 

The  Slovenes  or  Wends  are  found  outside 
the  Balkan  Peninsula  in  the  former  Austri.in 
Provinces  of  Carinthia,   Carniola   and   Styria. 

♦See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maca- 
ziNi:,  "In  Quaint,  Curious  Croatia,"  by  Felix  J. 
Koch  (December.  i()aS). 

t  See  alsi>,  in  Nation ai,  Gi:oCRArnic  Mac.a- 
ziNi:,  "Where  I'.ast  Meets  West."  by  Marian 
Cruger  Coffin  (May,  i<K>S).  and  "Ivast  of  the 
Adriatic,"  by  Kenneth  McKenzie  (.December, 
191-'). 


Photograph  from  Underwood  &  Underwood 

THE  OLD  CAPITAL  OP  A   NEW    NATION  :    PRAGUE,   CZECHO-SLAVIA 

The  Royal  Castle  and  St.  \'itus  Cathedral.  The  palace  was  begun  in  1344,  and  the  first 
stone  was  laid  by  Charles  IV.  It  has  711  apartments  and  three  grand  halls.  It  was  the  home 
of  Bohemia's  own  rulers  from  medieval  times  until  1620,  when  the  kingdom  was  crushed  by 
allied  armies  in  the  battle  of  Bila  Hora  (White  HilH,  a  plateau  on  the  outskirts  of  the  city. 
Since  that  battle  the  Czechs  in  Bohemia  have  sought  continually  to  regain  their  freedom. 
In  the  open  and  in  secret  they  have  never  ceased  to  agitate  their  cause.  It  was  in  the  city 
of  Prague  that,  sixty  years  ago,  the  Sokol,  or  Gymnastic  Association,  was  started,  with  the 
secret  purpose  of  some  day  throwing  off  the  Austrian  yoke  (see  illustration,  page  488). 


487 


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THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


489 


In  habits  and  purpose  they  are  in  sharp  con- 
trast to  the  Croats  and  Slavonians,  their  near 
kin.  Constantly  intermarrying  with  Germans, 
Hungarians  and  Italians,  they  have  seemed 
until  very  recently  little  affected  by  racial  con- 
cerns. They  are  industrious,  pliant,  little  in- 
clined to  resist  or  complain.  Perhaps  in  con- 
sequence the  Austrians  treated  them  with  a 
moderation  shown  to  no  other  subject  Slavs. 
They  number  about  1,350,000,  are  Roman 
Catholics  and  use  the  Latin  alphabet. 

THE    SLAVONIANS 

The  Slavonians,  people  who  have  appro- 
priated the  ethnic  name  of  their  race,  are 
neighbors  of  the  Croats  on  the  north.  In  1840 
the  Hungarians  imposed  the  Magyar  on  both  as 
the  official  language,  whereupon  the  smoulder- 
ing hatred  for  all  things  Hungarian  burst  into 
flame.     Everywhere  insurrection  broke  out. 

After  1868  the  Croatian-Slavonians  enjoyed 
the  empty  honor  of  being  entitled  the  King- 
dom of  Croatia-Slavonia.  Controlled  directly 
by  Hungary,  their  Ban  or  King  was  appointed 
by  the  Hungarian  Premier  and  was  subject  to 
instant  dismissal  by  him.  The  National  As- 
sembly was  limited  to  strictly  local  affairs,  but 
its  every  enactment  required  the  approval  of 
the  Hungarian  minister  for  Croatia-Slavonia 
who  was  himself  a  member  of  the  Hungarian 
cabinet.  This  device  of  "The  Kingdom  of 
Croatia-Slavonia"  was  most  dexterous  for 
soothing  the  pride  and  dictating  the  action  of 
a  subject  people.  Temporarily  successful,  in 
the  end  it  enraged  the  inhabitants,  as  they  real- 
ized how  plausibly  they  had  been  duped. 

CZECHO-SLOVAKIA  * 

The  Austro-Hungarian  Monarchy  was  an 
anomaly,  both  as  to  its  system  and  as  to  the 
ethnical  composition  of  its  inhabitants.  A  ref- 
erence to  its  method  will  throw  some  light 
upon  present  and  future  conditions. 

Austria-Hungary  consisted  of  two  equal  and 
independent  parts,  Austria  and  Hungary.  In 
Austria  in  1910  there  were  9,950,000  Austrian 
Germans  as  against  18,243,000  non-Germans 
of  various  races,  mainly  Slav.  In  Hungary  in 
1910  there  were  10,051,000  IMagyars  as  against 
10.836,000  non-Magyars  of  various  races. 

The  Germans,  though  but  one-third  the  popu- 
lation in  the  one,  were  dominant  there  and  the 
IMagyars  (see  page  497),  though  less  than  half 
the  population  in  the  other,  were  dominant 
there.  To  maintain  this  ascendancy  of  these 
two  minorities  summed  up  all  the  internal 
policy  and  determined  most  of  the  foreign 
policy  of  Austria-Hungary. 

The  Austrian-Germans  and  the  Magyars  al- 
ways disliked  each  other.  The  Austrian  was 
a  foreigner  at  Buda-Pest  and  the  Mag>'ar  at 

=^  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zixE.  "The  Land  of  Contrast"  (Austria-Hun- 
gary), by  D.  W.  and  A.  S.  Iddings  (December, 
1912),  and  "Hungary,  a  Land  of  Shepherd 
Kings,"  by  C.  Townley  Fullani  (October,  1914). 


Vienna.  But  each  recognized  that  his  own  po- 
litical salvation  depended  largely  on  alliance 
with  the  other.  To  the  Austrian  especially  it 
was  an  absolute  necessity.  The  ascendancy  of 
each  was  to  be  ascribed  in  part  to  long  monop- 
oly of  power  and  to  superior  cleverness  in 
manipulation. 

But  always  it  could  count  on  jealousies  and 
divisions  among  the  Slavic  subjects,  a  condi- 
tion always  encouraged.  More  than  once  the 
hopes  of  some  one  of  its  subject  Slavic  peo- 
ples have  approached  realization,  only  to  be 
thwarted  by  the  opposition  of  other  Slavs  or 
by  its  own  dissensions. 

The  disruption  of  the  Austro-Hungarian 
Empire  left  the  Magyars  in  much  the  same 
•position  as  before,  but  broke  Austria  into  frag- 
ments. The  Austrian  Germans  still  formed  a 
compact  body,  but  each  of  the  subject  Slavic 
peoples  sprang  to  a  realization  of  the  national 
idea. 

The  Germans  inhabit  a  large  territory,  ex- 
tending from  Switzerland  south  of  Bavaria  to 
a  little  east  of  Vienna;  also  a  belt  of  German 
population  almost  surrounds  the  Czechs,  and 
German  enclaves  are  dotted  like  islands  in  the 
midst  of  neighboring  Magyars  and  Slavs. 

Despite  frequent  usage,  it  must  not  be  for- 
gotten that  the  word  Austrian  never  was  iden- 
tified with  or  represented  a  nation.  It  is  a 
convenient  distinguishing  term,  as  in  saying 
that  the  Austrian  Germans  have  strong  sym- 
pathies' with  the  Germans  in  the  former  Ger- 
man Empire  and  will  ultimately  unite  with 
them. 

The  former  South  Slav,  or  Jugo-Slav,  sub- 
jects of  Austria-Hungary,  the  Bosnians,  Hel- 
vats,  Croats,  Slavonians,  Dalmatians,  and 
Slovenes,  were  described  among  the  races  of 
Jugo-Slavia,  where  they  are  placed  by  geogra- 
phy. The  other  Slavic  peoples,  former  subjects 
of  Austria,  are  the  Czechs,  Moravians,  Slovaks, 
and  Ruthenians. 

The  Czechs,  together  with  the  Slovaks  and 
Moravians,  are  now  recognized  by  the  United 
States  and  the  Entente  Allies  as  forming  the 
independent  Czecho-Slovak  nation.  On  the 
map  one  remarks  the  broad  area,  inhabitated 
by  Germans  and  Alagyars,  which  separates  the 
Czecho-Slovaks  from  the  Jugo-Slavs. 

THE   CZECHS* 

The  Czechs  or  Bohemians  are  the  farthest 
west,  surrounded  except  on  the  east  by  a  Ger- 
man population.  Bohemia,  Czech  in  Slavic,  de- 
rives its  name  from  the  Boii,  a  Celtic  people 
who  once  occupied  the  country  and  who  were 
succeeded  by  various  German  tribes.  Long 
afterward  the  Czechs  took  possession,  prob- 
ably during  the  great  Slavic  invasion  of  the 
sixth  century. 

The  Czech  nobles  or  land-proprietors  soon 
adopted  German  ways  and  spoke  only  German. 
Christianized  by  Saint  Methodius,  the  middle 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine. "Bohemia  and  the  Czechs,"  by  Ales 
Hrdlicka   (February,  1917). 


490 


491 


492 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


classes  became  communicants  of  the  Eastern 
Orthodox  Churcli,  the  ritual  of  which  in  each 
country  of  its  faith  was  always  celebrated  in 
the  vernacular  of  the  people.  When  after- 
ward they  changed  to  Roman  Catholics,  Latin 
irt  church  services  superseded  the  Cyrillic 
alphabet  and  the  old  Slavic  ritual. 

The  Czech  language,  thus  excluded  from  the 
Church  by  Latin  and  from  society  by  German, 
became  the  peculiar  heritage  of  the  common 
people.  As  long  as  Bohemia  was  an  inde- 
pendent State,  neither  persuasion  nor  persecu- 
tion could  force  them  to  give  it  up. 

After  Bohemia  became  an  Austrian  province, 
all  obtainable  Czech  books  and  manuscripts 
were  burned  and  the  use  of  Czech  in  writing 
or  in  schools  was  prohibited  under  heavy  pen- 
alties. But  the  Czech  persisted  in  his  pas- 
sionate devotion  to  his  mother  tongue.  Lan- 
guage and  nation  became  synonymous,  both 
denoted  by  the  same  word,  jacyk.  The  lan- 
guage kept  the  nation  alive  and  saved  it  from 
absorption.  Meanwhile  it  produced  such 
wealth  of  early  poetry  as  is  found  among  no 
other  Slavs. 

The  political  existence  of  the  Czechs  re- 
sembled in  striking  degree  that  of  their  racial 
kindred,  the  Poles.  In  both  there  was  found 
a  stjong,  sound,  patriotic  common  people.  In 
both  there  was  the  same  vacillating  royalty, 
eventually  elective,  and  above  people  and  king 
a  turbulent,  over-rich  nobility,  the  patriotism 
of  which  seemed  usually  subordinate  to  class 
or  personal  interest.  But  the  humbler  Czechs 
were  of  more  independent  spirit,  less  easily 
cowed,  and  sometimes  able  to  force  the  nobles 
to  follow  instead  of  lead. 

Czech  romance  finds  expression  in  its  grand- 
est figure,  John  Huss ;  in  the  blind,  unconquer- 
able leader  of  Zizka;  in  the  stirring,  futile  hero- 
isms of  the  Hussite  wars;  in  Comenius,  one  of 
the  foremost  educators  of  history,  author  of 
"The  Visible  World,"  the  first  illustrated  book 
for  children,  and  even  in  its  militant  University 
of  Prague,  the  most  venerable  school  of  learn- 
ing in  Central  Europe. 

The  evil  genius  of  the  Czechs  was  long  the 
House  of  Hapsburg.  Though  afterward  nomi- 
nally existent,  their  kingdom  was  submerged 
at  the  battle  of  White  Mountain  in  1620,  only 
its  name  surviving  among  the  titles  of  the  Au- 
strian Emperor. 

The  royal  history  of  Bohemia  twice  touches 
England  in  an  interesting  way.  From  tlie  Bo- 
hemian King,  I'crdinand,  who  lost  his  throne 
at  White  Mountain,  was  descended  George  I. 
the  first  English  sovereign  of  the  House  of 
Hanover.  The  crest  of  the  Prince  of  Wales 
with  its  three  feathers  and  motto,  "Ich  Dien," 
was  formerly  borne  by  the  Bohemian  kings. 
After  the  great  victory  of  Crccy  in  1346,  it  was 
picked  up  by  Edward  the  Black  Prince  near 
the  body  of  the  blind  Bohemian  king  John, 
who  had  fallen  in  the  battle,  and  has  ever 
since  been  the  crest  of  the  heir  to  the  English 
crown. 

In  the  former  kingdom  of  Bohemia  there 
are    about    7,000,000    inhabitants,    nearly    four- 


fifths  of  whom  arc  Czechs,  and  the  remainder 
mostly  Germans.  Many  other  Czechs  live  in 
Austrian  and  Prussian  Silesia,  among  the  Mo- 
ravians and  Slovaks,  and  in  the  United  States. 
The  recent  exploits  of  the  Czecho-Slovaks  in 
Siberia,  Russia,  France,  and  Italy  won  the  ad- 
miration of  the  world  and  were  no  small  factor 
in  gaining  from  the  Entente  Allies  the  recog- 
nition of  Czecho-Slovakia  as  an  independent 
State. 

THK    MOR.WI.XNS 

The  Moravians,  centered  on  the  Morava, 
occupy  a  plateau  of  the  size  of  Massachusetts, 
south  of  the  Czechs  and  Slovaks,  whom  they 
much  resemble.  They  were  Christianized  by 
Saint  Methodius.  In  the  ninth  century  their 
kingdom,  which  reached  the  Oder  and  the 
Drave,  was  overwhelmed  by  the  iMagyars. 

Disciples  of  John  Huss  founded  the  Mora- 
vian Brethren,  long  a  religious  force  in  Bohe- 
mia and  Poland.  Almost  destroyed  in  the 
Thirty  Years  War,  the  few  survivors  took 
refuge  in  Saxony.  Persecuted  there,  many 
emigrated  to  Georgia,  in  America.  John  Wes- 
ley came  in  contact  with  them,  and  their  ex- 
emplary, persuasive  influence  resulted  in  his 
conversion  and  that  of  his  brother  Charles. 
They  were  the  first  to  insist  on  the  conversion 
of  the  heathen  as  the  duty  of  the  Church.  Since- 
then  they  have  been  foremost  in  missionary 
labors.  In  Moravia  the  Brethren  have  almost 
disappeared.  All  but  four  per  cent  of  the 
'  1,700,000  Moravians  are  Roman  Catholics.  In- 
dustrious, enterprising,  intelligent,  lovers  of 
liberty,  they  were  always  restless  under  Aus- 
trian rule  and  deserve  the  freedom  that  now 
seems  theirs. 

THE   SLOVAKS 

The  Slovaks  are  mostly  found  in  the  north- 
ern provinces  of  Hungary.  On  the  east  they 
mingle  with  the  Ruthenians  and  on  the  west 
with  the  Czechs,  on  whom  they  are  wont  to 
depend.  They  are  a  peaceful,  primitive  people. 
Having  no  national  church,  never  liavinu: 
known  independence  until  iQiS,  they  inherit 
few  traditions,  but  many  popular  songs.  Their 
nobles  are  completely  magyarized. 

I'ntil  recently.  Slovak  merchants  and  the 
middle  class  generally  wished  to  be  taken  for 
Germans.  But  the  people  have  always  resisted 
foreign  control.  Despite  its  sharp  division  into 
dialects,  they  have  always  cherished  their  lan- 
guage, their  sole  bond  of  union.  The  Mag>-ars 
treat  them  with  brutal  contempt.  Manv  have 
emigrated  to  the  United  States.  Altogether 
tiicy  number  about  2,500.000. 

During  the  last  fifty  years  there  has  been  a 
marked  awakening  in  education  and  national 
feeling.  No  longer  indifferent  to  foreign  domi- 
nation, they  enter  upon  a  national  existence  of 
their  own. 

Till-:   KUTIIKNIANS 

Ruthenian.  meaning  Russian,  was  the  name 
given  by   the   .Austriaiis  to  such  of  their   sub- 


Photograph  by  A.  \V.  Cutler 

MORAVIAN    PEASANTS   IN   THE  VICINITY    OF   PRESSBURG 

Short  skirts  and  Wellington  boots  seem  to  be  the  fashion  here.  Note  the  elaborately 
braided  trousers  and  the  cap  made  of  gold  cording  worn  by  the  man.  The  Moravians  are 
to  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Morava  River,  occupying  a  plateau  about  the  size  of 
Massachusetts,  directly  south  of  the  land  of  the  Czechs  and  Slovaks  (see  page  492). 


493 


y  A.  \V.  Cutler 


SLOVAK    SISTKKS    IN    TIli:iR    SUNDAY    l-INKKV 


The  Slovaks  arc  a  peaceful,  i)riiiiilivc'  pt'tiplc,  iiilurilinK  few  traditions,  hut  many  popular 
songs.  They  are  to  be  found  mostly  in  tlie  northern  provinces  of  Hungary,  mingling  in  the 
east  with  the  Kuthenians  and  in  the  west  with  tiie  Czeclis  (see  page  AV-)- 


494 


LIKE  FATHER,  LIKE  SON  IN  HUNGARY 
Note  that  the  costumes  are  identical  except  that  the  sleeves  of  the  garment  worn  by  the 
l>ov  are  embroidered  and  not  decorated  with  colored  wools,  as  in  the  case  of  his  lather. 
The  long  apron,  worn  by  the  young  and  old  of  both  sexes,  is  a  feature  of  the  native  costume 
seen  in  Mezokovesd,  a  town  to  the  east  of  Buda-Pest.  Only  by  personal  inquiry  could  one 
determine  whether  the  subjects  of  this  photograph  are  Slovaks  or  Ruthenians.  These  two 
branches  of  the  Slav  race  mingle  almost  indistinguishably  in  this  section  of  Europe. 


405 


496 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


I'lvASANT   TYIMCS    IN     II  UNCAKN',    NOKT  I  ll'.AS'l 


i'liulugrapU 
OF    BUDA-l'i;sr 


Tlic  woman  on  the  rifilit  carries  lu-r  ^jaiidcr  in  tiic  same  fashion  that  the  Indian  s(|ua\v 
carries  her  papoose.  Tlie  maid  of  Holland  wears  the  distinctive  badRC  of  her  town  or  district 
on  her  head;  the  Sh>vak  peasant  girl  sometimes  wears  Iiers  on  iier  foot,  as  in  the  case  of  the 
girl  to  the  left,  whose  hoot-heel,  clahorately  eml.roidrred,  l.etokens  the  village  from  which 
she  trami)s. 


jects  as  are  Little  Rnssians.     Tiicre  are 
than  3,500,000  Ruthenians  in  the  Austrian 
inces  of  Galicia  and  lUikovina,  territories 
from    Poland.      In    iUikovina    they    are 
llnzulians.     They  differ  in    few   respects   from 
the  Little  Russi.ms  of  Russia.     In  Galicia  tluy 
form  nearly  half  the  iidi.ihit.mts,  the  aristocracy 
being  Polish  and  the  middle  classes  German  or 
Jewish. 

Though  Roman  Catholics,  they  use  the  Sl.ivic 


liturgy  and  the  I'lastern  Orthodox  ceremoni.al. 
They  were  traiupiil  under  the  Austrian  rule 
1  and  in  general  manifest  little  sympathy  for  the 
1  Czecho-J^lovaks  or  for  the  Poles.  They  natu- 
rally alliliate  with  their  ne.irer  kin,  the  IHcrai- 
ni.ins.  or  Kittle  Russians  (see  page  4O3).  They 
;ire  well  known  in  the  I'nited  States  for  indus- 
try .ind  intelligence.  The  Rtithenian,  Zolki- 
evski,  i)alriot  and  warrior,  was  the  Chevalier 
li.ivard  of  the  Slavs. 


THE    NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


497 


lotograph  by  A.  W.  Cutler 

DAMES  AND  DAMSELS  RETURNING   HOME  FROM    IMASS  ON  A  SUNDAY   MORNING 

In  the  land  of  the  Slovaks,  north  of  Pressburg,  the  young  girls  (those  in  front)  usually 
go  bareheaded,  but  after  marriage  their  hair  is  "done  up"  and  placed  under  a  cone-shaped 
basket  at  the  back  of  the  head.  When  the  wearer  is  on  the  street,  this  marriage  millinery  is 
covered  with  a  fringed  silk  kerchief  of  bright  hue. 


THE  AIAGYARS 

The  Magyars  are  the  dominant  race  in  Hun- 
gary and  the  real  founders  of  the  kingdom. 
Finno-Ugrians,  they  first  appear  in  Europe  as 
a  nomadic  horde  in  the  ninth  century,  crushing 
the  ]\Ioldavian  kingdom  and  seizing  the  terri- 
tory which  they  at  present  occupy.  From  this 
center  their  wild  raids  over  Europe  made  them 
a  universal  terror  for  sixty  years.  Then  a 
severe  defeat  at  Augsburg  by  the  German  Em- 
peror, Otto  I,  showed  their  isolation  among 
enemies  of  different  race  and  faith,  more  civil- 
ized and  more  powerful  than  themselves. 

Political  considerations  seem  to  have  deter- 
mined their  leaders  to  adopt  Christianity  and 
enter  the  Roman  Church.  Wise  sovereigns 
tranquilized  the  country  and  brought  in  many 
immigrants.  In  numerous  cases  special  privi- 
leges were  accorded.  All  others,  native  and 
foreign,  except  the  Magyars,  were  treated  as 
subject  races,  on  whom  most  of  the  taxes  were 
levied.  The  system  of  taxation  was  recently 
modified,  but  the  principle  of  inferior  races  is 
still  in  force  (see  page  489). 

The  Magyars  consider  the  Golden  Bull, 
granted  by  Stephen  II  seven  years  after  Magna 
Charta,  as  the  earliest  proclamation  of  consti- 
tutional rights  in  continental  Europe.  It  con- 
firms   the    excessive    privileges    of    the    great 


barons,  the  great  wealth  and  power  of  whom 
were  later,  even  under  the  ablest  kings,  to 
plunge  the' nation  into  anarchy  and  reduce  the 
masses  to  serfdom. 

The  Magyars  were  for  more  than  a  century 
the  buckler  of  Christendom  against  the  Otto- 
man Turks.  Their  illustrious  leader  was  Hun- 
yadi,  "the  incarnation  of  Christian  chivalry." 
They  have  never  recovered  from  their  crushing 
defeat  by  the  Turks  at  Mohacs  in  1526. 

Their  general  condition  was  not  improved 
by  the  fierce  broils  into  which  the  Reformation 
plunged  the  JNIagyars,  among  whom  for  a  time 
Protestantism  was  predominant.  Through  the 
marriage  of  a  IMagyar  princess  to  an  Austrian 
Archduke,  the  succession  passed  to  the  House 
of  Hapsburg,  when  the  Magyars  soon  found 
themselves  also  treated  as  a  subject  race. 

Discontent  brought  about  the  attempted  revo- 
lution under  Louis  Kossuth.  Defeated,  their 
leaders  took  refuge  in  Turkey.  Combined 
Russia  and  Austria  could  not  compel  the  Sultan 
to  violate  the  laws  of  hospitality  and  give  them 
up.  This  fact  the  Magyars  have  always  grate- 
fully remembered.  In  the  Russo-Turkish  war 
of  1877-7S  several  deputations  of  Magyars  vis- 
ited Constantinople  to  emphasize  their  friend- 
ship for  their  blood  kindred,  the  Ottoman 
Turks. 

In   Hungary   in    1910  there   were    10,051.000 


498 


THF.    NATIONAL   GF.Of^K  AI'H  IC    MA(;\ZINH 


mMf 


Instead  of  seeking  to  amalgamate  the  peoples  of  alien  blood  residing  within  the  confines 
of  their  country,  the  Magyars  pursued  the  unwise  policy  of  treating  all  persons  not  of  their 
own  kin  as  subject  races,  upon  whom  most  of  the  taxes  were  levied.  As  a  result,  instead  of 
being  a  melting  pot,  Hungary  became  a  retort,  confining  racial  elements  explosively  antag- 
fmistic  one  toward  the  f)ther  (see  page  407). 


Magyars  as  against  5,380,000  various  Slavs, 
2,0-19,000  Rumanians,  j,o37,(k)o  (lermans,  273.000 
Gypsies,  and  n}3,ooo  mcnibers  of  other  races. 

A.  glance  at  tin-  map  reveals  liow  ominous  arc 
the  racial  influences  surrounding  the  Magyars. 
West,  tiiere  are  the  Germans;  also,  as  the  i)ink 
enclaves  on  the  map  indicrite,  mnnerous  solid 
German  communities  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
Magyars;  north,  the  Czccho-Slovaks;  east,  the 
Rumanians;    south,    the    Jugo-Slavs — all    these 


like  magnets  attracting  tliose  of  tlieir  kin  still 
under  Magyar  rule. 

Nor  is  the  material  outlook  more  reassuring. 
The  Magyar  nobles  are  land-poor,  while  the 
Germans  anil  Jews  are  the  chief  employers  of 
lal)or,  carry  on  the  trade,  and,  the  Jews  espe- 
cially, control  the  press. 

Tlie  Magyars  are,  with  the  exception  of  the 
I-'inns,  theoidy  thoroughly  Europeanized  Kinno- 
Ugrian  people. 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGXZINK 


499 


THE   POLES  * 

Next  to  the  Russians,  of  whom  they  were 
long  the  rivals  and  foes,  the  Poles  are  numer- 
ically the  most  important  of  the  Slavs.  They 
first  appeared  in  Great,  or  North,  and  Little,  or 
South,  Poland  in  the  tenth  century,  where  they 
found  other  Slavic  tribes  in  possession.  The 
wise  policy  of  their  kings  early  induced  the 
whole  nation  to  profess  Christianity. 

Of  medium  size,  with  round  heads  and 
healthful  faces,  the  blond  more  common  than 
the  brunet,  their  physical  appearance  has  ap- 
parently changed  little.  The  working  classes, 
who  constitute  nine-tenths  of  the  nation,  have 
always  been  laborious,  frugal,  enduring,  tem- 
perate rather  than  abstemious,  and  intensely 
patriotic.  Those  qualities  distinguish  the  thou- 
sands of  Poles  in  the  United  States.  Their 
szlacta,  or  nobles,  have  shown  themselves  im- 
petuous, brave  to  rashness,  chivalrous,  insub- 
ordinate, emotional,  artistic. 

During  the  formative  period  Poland  was  con- 
solidated by  the  dynasty  of  the  great  Lithua- 
nian, Jagellon,  the  Polish  Wadislaus  II — a  suc- 
cession of  princes  unsurpassed  in  constructive 
ability.  Union  with  the  Lithuanians  doubled 
the  population  and  the  natural  resources.  To- 
gether they  crushed  the  Teutonic  Knights  at 
Tanncnberg  in  1410  and  half  a  century  later 
at  the  peace  of  Thorn  pushed  them  east  of  the 
Vistula.  The  Polish  lands  on  the  Baltic,  to- 
gether with  Danzig  and  Marienberg,  were 
recovered.  The  Duchy  of  Mazovia,  of  which 
Warsaw  was  the  center,  five  centuries  inde- 
pendent, voluntarily  joined  the  kingdom  which 
a  few  years  later  spanned  Europe  from  the 
Baltic  to  the  Black  Sea.  The  Reformation, 
regarded  with  suspicion  as  having  a  German 
origin,  only  for  a  time  disturbed  the  country. 

The  advantageous  situation  of  the  kingdom, 
the  admirable  qualities  of  its  common  people, 
and  the  development  already  attained,  seemed 
to  assure  the  greatness  and  permanence  of  the 
Polish  State. 

Yet  disappointment  meets  us  on  every  page. 
The  brilliant  passages  are  episodes  without 
connection  or  result.  Nowhere  else  is  so  much 
valor  wasted.  The  chasm  was  always  widen- 
ing between  the  nobles  and  the  common  people. 
The  people  paid  all  the  taxes.  The  r^obles,  all 
equal,  possessed  all  the  wealth  and  power,  but 
had  no  sense  of  obligation  or  responsibility. 
Intrepid  in  battle,  they  were  ready  to  fight  for 
the  country  only  when  so  inclined. 

The  system  of  government  was  oligarchic  in 
the  extreme.  Succession  to  the  powerless 
throne  was  elective,  native  or  foreigner  alike 
eligible.  Each  election  was  an  orgy  of  turbu- 
lence and  bribery.  Twice  the  throne  was  put 
up  at  auction.  The  liberum  veto,  estabhshed 
in  1652,  whereby  the  negative  vote  of  a  single 
member  of  the  Diet  nullified  any  act  or  all  the 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine. "Partitioned  Poland,"  by  William  J.  Sho- 
walter  (January,  1915),  and  "Devastated  Po- 
land," by  Frederick  Walcott  (May,  1917). 


acts  of  all  the  rest,  culminated  the  anarchy  and 
eventually  brought  about  the  destruction  of 
Poland. 

Yet  the  criminal  follies  of  a  privileged  class 
in  no  way  excuse  or  palliate  the  iniquity  of  the 
three  partitions  of  Poland  in  1773,  1793,  and 
1795  by  Prussia,  Russia,  and  Austria.  It  must 
be  noted  that  the  first  partition  was  confirmed 
by  the  Polish  Diet,  in  which  nearly  all  the 
members  accepted  foreign  bribes. 

The  belated  heroic  resistance  of  Kosciuszko. 
of  a  handful  of  nobles  and  of  the  infuriated 
common  people  glorifies  the  fall  of  the  State 
which  some  historians,  confused  by  the  farce 
of  election,  still  call  the  "Republic"  of  Poland. 

By  these  partitions  Russia  acquired  iSi,ooo 
square  miles  of  territory,  with  6,000,000  inhab- 
itants;  Austria,  45,000  square  miles,  with  2,500,- 
000  inhabitants ;  Prussia,  57,000  square  miles, 
with  2.500,000  inhabitants. 

The  Poles  under  the  Austrians  were  in  the 
main  kindly  treated.  Also,  being  Roman  Cath- 
olics, there  was  no  religious  antipathy.  Under 
the  Russians  every  harsh  measure  was  em- 
ployed to  accomplish  their  russification.  Those 
under  the  Prussians  were  the  most  pitiably 
situated  of  all.  In  the  efi^ort  to  make  them 
Germans  there  was  no  limit  to  the  systematic, 
persistent  cruelty  directed  against  all  classes 
and  ages. 

Poland  has  enriched  the  world  in  music,  art, 
and  literature.  The  national  dances,  the  polo- 
naise and  the  mazurka,  were  always  accom- 
panied by  singing.  Copernicus  is  Poland's 
greatest  name.  Sienkiewicz,  victim  of  the 
world  war,  by  many  considered  the  most  bril- 
liant writer  of  the  day,  was  a  Pole,  as  is  Pad- 
erewski. 

Situated  between  the  upper  millstone  of  Prus- 
sia and  the  nether  millstone  of  Russia,  and  at 
the  same  time  subjected  to  lateral  pressure 
from  Austro-Hungarian  armies,  the  land  of  the 
Poles  during  the  world  war  suffered  devasta- 
tion which  exceeds  the  imagination  of  those 
who  have  not  actually  witnessed  the  scenes  of 
rapine,  pillage,  conflagration,  and  wanton  de- 
struction. 

The  restitution  of  a  reunited  Poland  to  its 
loyal  common  people  will  be  among  the  wor- 
thiest achievements  of  the  Allies. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  which  the 
restored  nation's  leaders  will  encounter  is  the 
Jewish  situation.  There  are  millions  of  Jews  in 
Polish  territory.  It  is  admitted  by  all  thought- 
ful statesmen  that  great  effort  and  sacrifice  on 
the  part  of  botli  the  Poles  and  the  Jews  will 
be  necessary  before  a  satisfactory  solution  can 
je  ■■cached. 

THE  JEWS* 

On  the  Arch  of  Titus  in  Rome  are  carved  in 
bold  relief  laurel-crowned  soldiers,  bearing  a 
massive  seven-branched  candlestick.    This  rep- 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine. "An  Old  Jewel  in  the  Proper  Setting," 
by  Charles  W.  Whitehair  (October.  1918). 


500 


THE    NATIONAL   (^KOGRAFHFC    MAGAZIXF 


«»s.^»»rsw^^. 


The  pillows  in  tlie  background  are  a  familiar  feature'  of  most  well-to-do  homes  in  Hun- 
gary. They  form  one  of  the  chief  items  in  a  bride's  trousseau;  babies  are  carried  on  huge 
pillows:  a  mammoth  pillow  is  usually  the  sole  covering  at  niglit.  wliile  two  smaller  pillows 
frequently  constitute  the  bed. 


resents  the  Golden  Candlestick  wliich  once 
lighted  the  Holy  Place  in  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem and  which  was  carried  directly  before 
the  con(juerr)r  Titus  at  his  triumph.  The  Arch 
commemorates  the  con(|uesl  of  Jud.ea  in  the 
year  70  and  the  destruction  of  the  Temple  and 
is  contem])oraneous  with  the  first  great  disper- 
sion of  the  Jews.  Individuals  h.id  already  set- 
tled in  every  city  of  the  lMn|)ire,  but  there  luul 
been  no  general  exodus.  .Now.  destitute  hence- 
forth of  a  religious  center,  their  world  pilgrim- 
age began.     The  Arch  seems  not  so  much  a 


monument  to  a  dead  emperor  as  the  perpetual 
reniinder  of  a  scattered  and  deathless  race. 

Sixty  years  after  Titus,  all  Jerusalem  was 
I)Iowed  over  and  Jews  were  forbidden  to  ap- 
proach the  spot  on  pain  of  death.  The  very 
name  of  the  s.ured  city  was  proscribed,  the 
lieathen  colony  planted  on  its  site  being  called 
.IClia  Capit(jlina.  Hundreds  of  thousands  had 
I)erished  in  battle,  massacre,  and  starvation. 
A  people  without  a  capital,  coimtry,  or  shrine, 
the  dispersion  oi  the  survivors  went  on  over 
all  the  Unown  world. 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


501 


Photograph  by  A.  \V.  Cutler 

gypsies:  the  nomads  of  every  land 

Whence  they  come  and  whither  they  go  is  a  puzzle  not  only  to  the  dweller  in  city  or 
country  whom  they  pass,  but  to  the  student  of  races  as  well.  Their  origin  is  lost  in  the 
mists  of  legend  and  tradition.  They  are  to  be  found  in  many  countries  of  Europe,  chiefly 
in  the  Balkans,  in  Hungary,  and  in  Spain.  He  who  is  fascinated  by  the  romantic  subject  of 
the  Gypsies  tinds  in  the  pages  of  George  Borrow's  "Lavengro"  and  "Romany  Rye"  accounts 
of  these  wanderers  which  are  of  absorbing  interest.  The  man  in  the  photograph  is  holding 
the  silver-crowned  cane  which  he  uses  when  on  the  road.  His  coat  is  adorned  with  innnense 
silver  buttons  (see  page  502). 


Rome  had  regarded  the  Jews  merely  as  dan- 
gerous rebels  who  must  be  crushed.  After 
they  became  powerless,  they  were  allowed  to 
live  and  prosper  as  they  pleased.  The  Mishna. 
or  Oral  Law,  the  foundation  of  the  Talmud, 
was  evolved.  Meanwhile  a  marvelous  teacher, 
Mar  Samuel,  wrought  into  the  very  being  of 
the  exiles  a  principle  that  was  to  control  their 
attitude  and  conduct.  He  taught  that  every- 
where "the  law  of  the  government  is  the  bind- 
ing law,"  and  that  it  was  their  religious  duty, 
not  from  expediency,  but  from  moral  obliga- 
tion, to  conform  to  and  obey,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  laws  of  any  country  in  which  they  were 
found.  They  were  even  to  pray  for  the  peace 
of  the  place  wherein  they  dwelt. 

Thus  was  their  adaptation  to  any  habitat 
made  incumbent  and  possible.  From  it  has 
come  about  the  racial  suppleness  which  bends 
but  never  breaks.  To  it  Graetz,  the  foremost 
of  Jewish  historians,  declares  Judc-eism  has 
owed  "the  possibility  of  existence  in  a  foreign 


country."  Through  tribulation  and  agony,  un- 
exampled in  tlie  life  of  any  other  people,  it  has 
enabled  the  Jewish  race  to  survive. 

The  nominal  profession  of  Christianity  by 
Europe  set  the  Jew  by  himself  apart.  To  an 
ignorant  and  brutal  age  every  Jewish  hand 
seemed  red  with  the  blood  of  the  Saviour. 
That  Jesus  and  the  apostles  were  themselves 
Jews  was  sometimes  denied.  Under  the  mask 
of  piety,  every  foul  passion  robbed  and  mal- 
treated the  Jews.  The  laws  against  them  were 
more  merciless  than  the  mobs.  In  Italy  they 
were  at  times  less  harshly  treated  through  the 
influence  of  the  Popes,  and  sometimes  a  great 
sovereign  like  Cliarlemagne  would  shine  as 
their  open  friend.  Yet,  with  rare  exceptions, 
injustice,  persecution,  and  proscription  were 
their  invariable,  universal  lot  from  Constan- 
tine  far  down  into  modern  times.  The  severe 
Moslem  laws  against  them  were  laxly  enforced. 
So  they  shared  the  brilliant  prosperity  of  the 
Moors  in  Spain  until  both  were  expelled. 


502 


THF.    XATIOXAL   ('.F.OGRAPHIC    MAl^AZINE 


The  Jewish  Year  Book  reckons  there  are  to- 
day about  10,000,000  in  Europe,  3,000,000  in  the 
United  States,  and  1,000,000  in  the  rest  of  tlie 
world.  It  reckons  100,000  in  I"'rance,  106,000 
in  the  Netherlands.  230,000  in  Kuniania,  257,- 
000  in  the  United  Kingdom,  615,000  in  Germany, 
1,300,000  in  what  was  formerly  Austria-Hun- 
gary, and  7,000.000  in  Russia.  In  Ucnmark, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Portugal,  and  Spain  there 
are  comparativel}'  few. 

The  great  number  in  Russia  largely  trace 
back  to  Casimir  the  Great,  a  Polish  king.  His 
favorite,  Esther,  a  devoted  Jewess  like  her 
namesake  in  the  Bible,  persuaded  Casimir  to 
offer  the  Jews  a  home  in  Poland.  The  Jews 
had  multiplied,  especially  in  that  part  of  Poland 
which  Russia  secured  in  the  three  partitions 
and  which,  with  constantly  changing  bound- 
aries, constituted  tlie  Russian  Pale.  When 
Casimir  died,  in  1370,  Polish  toleration  ended. 
Instead  there  was  often  the  ferocious  shout, 
'"Hep,  Hep !"  with  which  the  pogrom  began. 
A  pogrom  is  an  organized  massacre  and  "Hep" 
is  supposedly  derived  from  the  initials  of 
"Hierosolyma  est  perdita." 

The  fires  through  which  the  Jews  have 
passed  only  intensified  their  remarkable  do- 
mestic and  racial  dcivotion.     There  is  no  posi- 

jiontfii  hapQrtclr«ic!)nJidence  where  one  does 
nbl^  ^ow  fiM  ii.^»\\'."*  There  is  no  height  or 
distmction— j[5oljtic^l,  diijfdinatic,  fmancial,  dra- 
tfi^fat.;'*'?*^tu:;  ;litilrarV-^,\i*hich    the    sons    and 

,  ^caijAi^eK'T'i^f  4.^r?K-1*haVc'  not  attained. 

TMK  GYPSIES 

The  Gypsies  are  first  found  in  the  Greek 
islands  and  continental  Greece  early  in  the 
fourteenth  century.  No  tradition  exists  as  to 
how  they  arrived  or  whence  they  came.  After- 
ward, they  wandered  through  the  Balkan  Pen- 
insula, settling  nowhere  except  as  the  greater 
number  were  seized  along  the  way  and  made 
serfs  or  slaves. 

In  1417  they  appeared  in  western  Europe, 
showing  a  peculiar  pass  or  safe-conduct 
wherein  they  were  called  Tsigani.  This  pass, 
signed  by  Sigismund,  king  of  Hungary  and 
German  emperor,  granted  permission  to  go 
wherever  they  pleased  in  the  king's  dominions, 
ordered  his  subjects  to  show  them  kindness 
and  protection,  and  forbade  interference  with 
them  of  any  sort.  A  little  later  tiicir  roving 
bands  reached  Italy,  Francj,  .ind  the  Britisli 
Islands. 

Believed  to  have  come  from  Egypt,  their 
English  name  was  (iyi)sies.  The  French,  how 
ever,  called  them  Btjhemians,  thinking  they  had 
originated  in  Bohemia.  They  called  themselves 
Rom,  supposed  to  mean  nitiii.  This  term  was 
possibly  picked  uj)  in  passage  through  south- 
eastern i**nrope.  .'\inong  their  many  other 
names  were  llagarenes,  children  of  llagar. 
Saracens,  as  from  Arabia,  and  .Xthingani,  or 
"Touch-me-nots,"  from  a  heretical  sect  in  Asia 
Minor. 

Restrictive  laws  have  hami)ered  and  some- 
times entirely  curtailed  their  former  vagrancy. 


Most  Gypsies  now  live  in  houses,  though  still 
retaining  their  restless  propensities.  Existing 
in  every  country,  they  have  been  accurately 
counted  nowhere.  There  are  probably  not  over 
700,000  in  Europe,  of  whom  three- fourths  are 
located  in  Hungary,  Rumania,  and  the  Balkan 
Peninsula,  where  they  enjoy  the  same  civil 
rights  as  the  other  inhabitants.  Without  coun- 
try or  traditions  or  religion  of  their  own.  they 
readily  profess  whatever  is  nearest. 

The  Gypsies  are  of  wiry  figure,  with  black, 
often  silky,  hair;  large,  shining,  black  eyes; 
perfect  teeth,  regular  and  white,  and  a  glow- 
ing rich  complexion,  which  early  becomes 
tawny.  Their  young  women  often  possess  a 
brilliant  but  soon  fading  beauty.  In  music 
and  dance,  the  untrammcled  freedom  of  the 
race  fmds  full  expression.  Liszt  ascribes  to  the 
Gypsies  "the  origin  of  Hungarian  national 
music."  Many  of  the  most  popular  Rumanian, 
Serbian,  and  Bulgarian  ballads  and  tunes  are 
derived  from  the  Gypsies. 

Our  chief  interest  in  the  Gypsy  is  his  lan- 
guage. Toward  the  end  of  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury three  scholars,  working  apart  and  un- 
known to  one  another,  discovered  that  his 
"jargon"  is  a  primitive  Indo-European  lan- 
guage, now  spoken  nowhere  else  and  contained 
in  no  manuscript  or  book.  Corrupted  and  de- 
based, yet  radically  the  same,  it  has  been  pre- 
served through  uncounted  years  and  unknown 
wanderings  on  the  lips  of  this  mysterious  peo- 
ple. An  eminent  Oriental  investigator.  Dr.  Pas- 
pati,  believed  that  the  Romany  was  an  ancient 
sister  of  the  Sanscrit  and  that  the  Gypsy  is  the 
most  ancient  Indo-European  in  Europe. 

THE  (GERMANS  * 

The  name  German  during  these  last  years 
has  been  so  blackened  and  befouled  by  its  own 
children  that  it  can  never  regain  its  f(^rmer 
place  in  the  respect  and  esteem  of  men.  But, 
before  militarism  destroyed  idealism,  before 
the  Prussian  virus  poisoned  the  German  soul, 
there  was  no  department  of  research,  art,  or 
literature  which  the  Germans  did  not  distin- 
guish. Obscured  from  the  world's  thought  to- 
day by  an  interposing  pall  are  the  thinkers, 
poets,  philosophers,  and  reformers  of  Ger- 
many's great  past. 

The  main  body  of  Germans  has  occupied  the 
s.-ime  territory  from  a  period  anted.-iting  the 
Christian  er.i.  Though  absorbing  many  Slavic 
rlements.  they  are  as  a  people  less  composite 
than  the  Italians  or  the  French, 

The  number  of  inhabitants  of  the  German 
F.mpire  at  the  last  census,  inclusive  of  1.870,000 
persons    in    Alsace-Lorraine    .ind    of    i.j()0.(hx) 

*  See  also,  in  N.\tion'ai.  Gi-oi.uai'iiic  M.\c..\- 
ziNi:,  "Peasant  Life  in  the  Black  iMirest,"  by 
Karl  I'Vederick  Geiser  (  Sei)tember,  1008)  ;  "A 
Corner  of  Old  Wurttemberg."  by  B.  11.  Bux- 
ton (October.  i<)ii):  "The  German  Nation" 
(September,  lou):  "I  lilde>^lieiin.  the  Town  of 
Many  Gables."  by  Florence  Craig  Allirecht 
(February,  191=;). 


Photo-ranli  by  Hrdelyi 


A   FARMKR  OF   BANFFYIIUXYAD.   A  VILLAGE  OF  TRANSVLVAXLV 

Within  the  limits  of  Transylvania  ("forest  land"),  an  area  of  eastern  Hungary  about 
half  the  size  of  the  State  of  Virginia,  reside  three  "privileged  peoples" — the  Magyars,  the 
Szeklers,  kinsmen  of  the  Magv^ars,  and  Saxons,  descendants  of  German  immigrants  who  came 
into  the  country  in  the  twelfth  century.  Numerically,  however,  the  most  important  clement 
of  the  population  is  Rumanian.  In  addition,  there  are  Jews,  Ruthenians,  Bulgarians.  Slovaks, 
Serbians,  and  Greeks.  The  plurality  of  Rumanians  forms  the  basis  of  their  country'sclaim 
to  a  large  portion  of  this  district,  rich  in  m.ines,  forests,  pasture  lands,  and  river-bottom  farms. 


503 


504 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


•m-   jivwisii 


The  Jcwisli  Year  Book  reckons  the  number  of  Jews  in  Europe  today  as  10,000,000;  in 
the  United  vStales  3,000,000,  and  another  1,000,000  scattered  tliroughout  the  rest  of  the  world. 
In  the  famous  painting  here  reproduced  the  Swiss  artist,  Burnand,  depicts  two  of  the  Disci- 
ples, Peter  and  John,  Inirrying  to  tlic  Sepulchre.  Tlie  canvas  hangs  in  the  Museum  of  the 
Luxembourg,  Paris. 


foreign  residents,  was  64,926,000.  Subtracting 
the  foreigners,  the  people  of  Alsace-Lorraine, 
and  3,500,000  Slavs,  mostly  Poles,  there  remain 
about  58,cx)0,ooo  Germans.  .Adjacent,  strongly 
attached  to  tliem,  are  the  10,000,000  Austrian 
Germans  and  the  nearly  300,000  in  Luxemburg 
and  Liechtenstein,  m.aking  a  total  German 
population  in  Central  Europe  of  approximately 
70,000,000. 

The  distinction  of  Low  Germans,  dwellers  in 
the  Lowlands,  and  High  Germans,  dwellers 
further  south,  on  higher  ground,  early  indicated 
forms  of  the  language  and  literary  expression. 

More  than  any  other  race  in  Europe,  the 
Germans  in  Germany  have  inter-bred  among 
themselves.  Tn  consequence,  they  have  devel- 
oped traits  which  in  a  smaller  people  would  be 
termed  provincial — inordinate  self-satisfaction, 
sense  of  superiority  to  other  nations,  and 
marked  incapacity  as  colonizers.  While  mak- 
ing good  colonists  under  otlier  flags  than  tlieir 
own,  as  colonizers  under  tluir  own  II.11-'  thcv 
have   failed   utterlv. 


Despite  all  inducements  olTered  by  their  gov- 
enunent,  they  were  tliemselves  reluctant  to  enn"- 
grate  to  German  colonies  except  as  State  func- 
tionaries or  soldiers.  In  ioi-|,  in  the  more  than 
1,000,000  square  miles  of  German  coUmial  pos- 
sessions, there  were  less  than  25.000  white  resi- 
dents, inclusive  of  foreigners.  Moreover,  Ger- 
man treatment  of  the  natives  is  seldom  kindly, 
but  in  general  brutal  and  inhuman. 

Yet  German  enterprise  and  discontent  with 
former  conditions  in  the  fatherland  carried 
them  by  hundreds  of  thousands  all  over  the 
globe.  In  the  Ihiited  States  there  are  over 
2,500,000  persons  who  were  born  in  Germany, 
most  of  them  loyal  and  efficient  .American  citi- 
zens.* There  ;ire  over  2,000,000  in  Hungary 
and  1,500,000  in  Russia,  long  resident  in  those 
cotmtries.  In  South  America  there  are  more 
ih.an  500,000. 

In    11)1  I   (^icrman  or  of  German  origin   were 

*  Sec  in  X\Tiox.\t.  Gkoc.k.m'iiic  M!.\c,.azink, 
■  <  )nr  I"oreiL;n-Iiorn  Citizens"  (February,  1017). 


THE    NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


505 


JEWISH    CHILDREN    IN    POLAND 

The  reason  for  the  great  number  of  Jews  now  found  in  Poland  may  be  traced  back  to 
the  days  of  Casimir  the  Great,  a  Polish  king,  whose  favorite,  Esther,  a  devoted  Jewess,  per- 
suaded" her  royal  lover  to  offer  her  people  a  home  in  his  dominions.  When  Casimir  died,  in 
1370,  Polish  toleration  ended,  and  during  the  succeeding  centuries  the  lot  of  the  Jew  has  been 
an  unhappy  one.  ]\Iarriage  vows  are  taken  early  by  the  Jews  in  Poland ;  a  girl  scarcely 
ceases  to  play  with  dolls  before  she  has  babies  of  her  own,  and  a  woman  twenty-five  years 
old  is  frequently  the  mother  of  six  or  seven  children  (see  page  499)- 


the  reigning  houses  of  Austria-Hungary,  Bel- 
gium, Bulgaria,  Denmark,  the  German  Ern- 
pire,  and  each  of  its  25  States  except  the  Slavic 
dynasty  of  the  two  Mecklenburgs ;  Great  Brit- 
ain, Greece,  Holland,  Liechtenstein,  Luxem- 
burg, Norway,  Rumania,  Russia,  and  Sweden. 
In  Great  Britain  the  royal  house,  long  thor- 
oughly anglicised,  by  royal  proclamation  in 
1917,  changed  its  title  from  "House  of  Saxe- 
Coburg  and  Gotha"  to  "House  of  Windsor." 
In  Belgium  and  Rumania  the  rulers  identified 
themselves  with  their  people.  The  monarchs 
of  the  no  longer  existing  Austro-Hungarian, 
German  and  Russian  empires  are  either  fugi- 
tive or  dead. 

Until  187 1  the  term  German  was  an  ethnic 
or  geographical  expression  without  national 
meaning.  There  had  never  been  a  real  German 
nation.  Instead  had  existed  an  indefinite  num- 
ber of  political  units — kingdoms,  duchies,  free 
cities,  loosely  connected  or  not  connected  at 
all — in  European  wars  usually  taking  opposite 
sides.     The   number    of    such    units    had   been 


gradually  reduced  to  twenty-five.  This  was  an 
inheritance  from  the  tribal  system,  often  de- 
plored by  German  patriots  and  statesmen.  Act- 
ing together  for  the  first  time  in  the  war  of 
1870-71,  they  conquered  imperial  France. 

The  proclamation  of  the  Empire  on  January 
18,  1871,  at  Versailles,  in  the  throne  room  of 
Louis  XIV,  the  arch  foe  of  the  German  race, 
was  iTiost  spectacular.  German  tmion  seemed 
achieved.  On  April  16  the  sovereigns  of  the 
five  larger  German  States  granted  the  Empire  a 
Constitution,  in  the  making  of  which  tlie  people 
had  no  share.  This  Constitution  rendered 
Prussia  and  her  Hohenzollern  King  supreme 
in  Germany.  The  Constitution  could  in  no  way 
be  changed  without  tlie  consent  of  the  King  of 
Prussia,  who  was  German  Emperor,  except  b\ 
revolution   (see  map,  page  510). 

The  revolution  has  now  been  accomplished 
But  peoples  and  races  remain,  though  thrones 
and  empires  fall.  After  present  troubles  are 
pacified  and  wrongs  righted,  in  the  very  center 
of   the  continent  will  exist  a  compact,  homo- 


5o6 


THE    NATION Ai.    GEOGRAPHIC    AIAGAZIXE 


geneous,  ethnic  group  of  Germans,  70,000,000 
strong.  Because  of  the  enormities  of  the  pasL 
four  and  a  half  years,  this  group  cannot  h^ 
trusted  until  they  have  shown  repentance  not 
of  a  few  days  or  months,  hut  by  a  generation 
or  more  of  decent  action. 

The  nascent  Slavic  republics  of  Czecho-Slo- 
vakia  (see  page  489),  Poland  (see  page  499), 
and  possibly  Lithuania  (see  page  465),  to  tlie 
east  of  the  Germans,  and  of  Jugo-Slavia  (see 
pa2:e  485),  on  the  south,  could  easily  be  honey- 
combed with  discontent  and  mutual  jealousies 
by  the  scheming  junker  class  of  Prussians 
Thereby  would  be  created  in  the  heart  of  Eu- 
rope another  political  volcano  always  in  erup- 
tion, closely  analogous  to  that  which  kept  the 
Balkans  in  continual  convulsion  prior  to  the 
world  v/ar.  Unless  from  the  Germans  are  ex- 
acted such  guarantees  of  good  conduct  as  can 
neither  be  escaped  nor  evaded,  the  world  is 
handing  over  these  enfranchised  races  to  be- 
come the  ultimate  prey  of  men  who  are  bound 
neither  by  justice,  nor  honor,  nor  mercy  in 
their  dealings  with  mankind. 

In  the  German  group  specially  prominent  are 
the  Prussians,  the  Bavafians,  the  Saxons,  and 
the  three  Free  Towms  of  Liibeck,  Hamburg,  and 
Eremen. 

The  Free  Towns  were  the  largest  factor  in 
the  spread  of  German  influence  during  the 
Middle  Ages.  These  three  associated  with 
themselves  for  mutual  protection  ninety  of  the 
principal  commercial  cities  between  the  Rhine 
and  Novgorod.  This  association,  called  the 
Hanseatic  League,  or  League  of  the  Guilds, 
from  1241  for  more  than  four  hundred  years 
defended  tl:e  rights  of  trade  and  was  supreme 
in  northern  Europe.  Under  normal  conditions 
ihe  maritime  and  commercial  interests  of  Lii- 
beck, Bremen,  and  Hamburg  are  immense.  The 
citizens,  proud  of  their  self-governing  tradi- 
tions, are  democratic  in  sentiment. 

The  Saxons  are  of  almost  pure  Teutonic 
stock,  with  slight  Slavic  admixture.  They  oc- 
cup3'  one  of  the  most  fertile  regions  of  Ger- 
many. Formerly  they  were  renowned  for  their 
independent  spirit.  For  thirty-three  years  they 
stubbornly  fought  against  Charlemagne,  who 
finally  conquered  and  Christianized  them.  Dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  century  they  constantly  pro- 
gressed in  constitutional  liberty  until  the  Prus- 
sians occupied  their  territory  in  1866.  They 
rank  among  the  most  highly  educated  people 
of  Europe.  Dresden,  their  capital,  is  a  center 
of  art  and  industry.  More  than  95  per  cent 
of  the  vSaxons  are  Protestant. 

TIIE    BAVARIANS 

The  Bavarians  are  racially  the  most  compos- 
ite people  of  Germany,  being  descended  from 
Ciermanized  Slavs,  earlier  Celtic  settlers,  and 
Teutonic  Marcomanni  and  Quadi.  The  latter 
entered  the  country  from  the  east  and  were 
■-ailed  Baivarii,  probably  from  Bojer,  as  they 
had  come  via  Bojerland  or  Bohemia. 

They  inhabit  an  immense  amphitheater,  about 
220  miles  long  and  no  miles  broad,  surrounded 
hv    lofty    mountains.      No    other    territory    of 


equal  size  in  Germany  is  enclosed  by  natural 
boundaries  so  distinct;  consequently  the  Ba- 
varians have  developed  a  character  of  their 
own.  Physically  they  are  darker,  smaller- 
boned,  more  natural,  and  less  stiff  than  Ger- 
mans generally.  They  are  conservative,  re- 
ligious, and  affable. 

The  Passion  Play  has  been  rendered  every 
ten  years  since  1634  by  the  Bavarian  peasants 
of  Oberammcrgau.  Sovereigns  and  people  have 
fostered  music  and  the  drama,  and  their  capital, 
Munich,  is  a  school  of  all  the  arts.  The 
bronze  doors  of  the  Capitol  in  Washington 
were  cast  in  a  Bavarian  foundry.  Count  Hum- 
ford,  philanthropist  and  man  of  science,  born 
in  Woburn,  AI::ss.,  and  for  eleven  years  Ba- 
varian Minister  of  War  and  Police,  reorganized 
labor  and   reformed  social  conditions. 

Always  hostile  to  Prussia,  the  Bavarians 
since  their  subjection  in  1866  have  of  necessity 
sullenly  submitted  to  Prussian  control.  Re- 
ligious differences  intensify  the  separation, 
seven-tenths  of  the  6,000,000  Bavarians  being 
Roman  Cafliolics. 

the;  PRUSSIAN g  '■•' 

The  Prussians  derive  their  liame  and  origin 
from  the  Borussi,  a  fierce,  large-boned  people, 
kindred  of  the  Lithuanians  and  Letts  (see 
pages  464-465),  living  in  the  tenth  century  c:i 
the  lowlands  of  the  Oder,  Vistula,  and  Niemen. 
Almost  exterminated  b}'  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
the  survivors  besought  the  intervention  of  Po- 
land, which  annexed  those  west  of  th.e  Vistr.la. 
In  1525  Albert  of  Hchenzollern,  grand  master 
of  the  Knights,  declared  himself  a  Protestant 
and  surrendered  his  lands  to  the  King  of  Po- 
land, who  thereupon  created  Prussia  a  Grand 
Duchy  and  made  him  Grand  Duke.  His  remote 
descendant,  Frederick,  having  bought  tlie  title 
of  king  from  the  emperor  at  a  great  price,  with 
extraordinary  pomp  at  Konigsburg,  where  he 
was  born,  crowned  himself  King  of  Prussia, 
January  18,  1 701. 

The  Prussians,  though  completely  German- 
ized, always  differed  from  and  were  disliked 
and  mistrusted  by  the  other  Germans.  \'on 
Treitschke  says  of  Prussia,  "from  its  beginning 
the  most  hated  of  German  States."  Goethe 
wrote,  "The  Prussian  was  always  a  brute  and 
civilization  will  make  him  ferocious."  Th.e 
Prussians  have  always  manifested  peculiar 
traits,  possibly  derived  from  their  common  an- 
cestors, the  merciless  Knights  and  the  ilerce 
Borussi. 

At  accession  Frederick  possessed  a  kingdom 
of  40,000  square  miles  and  1,500,000  inhab- 
itants. A  year  ago  Prussia  comprised  140,000 
square  miles  and  40,000,000  inhabitants. 

This  surprising  result  was  accomplished  by 
a  continuous,  consistent  policy  of  employing 
duplicity,  violence,  or  any  infamous  means  to 
acquire  territory  and  people.     While  the  name 

*  See  also,  in  Xatio.nai.  Geographic  ]\L\ca- 
ziNE,  "Prussianism,"  by  Secretary  of  State 
Robert  Lansing,  and  '"Germany's  Dream  of 
World  Domination"   (June,  1918). 


508 


THE    NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


O  Pr.<s  111n-itr:itiiig  Service 

roi,i;s  IN  i-Roci'SSiox  at  tiiic  fum-.uai.  or  a  iumous  amf.rican  prklatk 

The  square-topped  caps  distinguish  the  uniforms  of  the  Polish  soldiers,  while  the  fore- 
most private  citizen  of  Poland,  Ignace  Padcrewski,  leads  this  contingent  of  his  countrymen 
who  arc  paying  a  linal  triliute  to  the  late  Cardinal  Farley.  Thousands  of  Poles  in  America 
who  harl  not  been  naturalized,  and  therefore  were  not  suliject  to  the  draft,  volunteered  for 
service  against  the  Germans  and  were  trained  at  a  mobilization  camp  near  Niagara  Falls.  On 
the  western  front  the  Polish  Legion  shared  honors  of  war  with  the  famous  French  Foreign 
Legion  (see  also  page  499). 


Prussian  is  applied  to  all  Prussian  subjects, 
the  great  majority  belong  to  States  spoliated  or 
destroyed. 

This  system  was  endured  and  favored  as 
long  as  attended  by  the  glamour  of  foreign 
military  success.  In  the  wars  with  Demnark, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  I'Vance,  it  intoxicated  by 
triumphs,  electric  in  rapidity.  But  the  first 
great  disaster  was  sure  to  hurl  it  to  the  ground 
amid  the  awakened  scorn  and  detestation  of 
the  German  people.  The  political  delirium 
now  sweeping  over  Germany  is  manifeslation 
of  this  awakening. 

SIvAVIC   TRIUlvS    I.\    GKKMAXV 

Slavic  tribes,  formerly  scattered  through 
Germany  as  far  as  the  Elbe,  have  been  almost 
entirely  absorbed  into  the   German  population. 

The  Polabs,  once  numerous,  were  probably 


the  last  to  disappear.  The  district  in  eastern 
Hanover,  where  their  language  was  spoken  as 
late  as  the  seventeenth  century,  is  still  called 
Wend. 

In  Lusatia,  the  name  derived  from  the  Slav 
tribe  Lusitzi,  now  belonging  to  Saxony  and 
Prussia,  there  are  about  170,000  Sorbs,  or 
Wends.  Li  most  difTicult  circumstances  ihcy 
have  resolutely  retained  their  language  and 
customs  in  the  midst  of  a  German  i)o|)ulation 
eight  times  their  number.  Forgotten  by  the 
world  and  gradually  becoming  (V-rmanized, 
they  were  vitali/ed  by  a  remarkable  national- 
istic awakening  at  the  beginning  of  the  nine- 
teenth century.  Ill-treated  in  Prussia,  they 
have  been  favored  in  Saxf)ny,  where  their  capi- 
tal, Bautzen,  is  an  intellectual  center.  Their 
language  is  intermediate  between  Polish  and 
Czech. 


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THE  SCANDINAVIANS* 

The  Scandinavians,  or  the  Danes,  Norwe- 
gians, and  Swedes,  Teutonic  peoples,  are  so 
intimately  related  in  race  and  history  that,  ex- 
cept with  frequent  repetition,  it  would  be  im- 
possible to  discuss  them  separately.  Scandi- 
navian is  a  term  of  unknown  origin  and  mean- 
ing, long  used  to  include  them  all. 

The  vast,  elongated  northern  peninsula  be- 
tween the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  and  the  Atlantic 
doubles  in  breadth  towards  the  south  and  bi- 
forks  as  if  to  admit  the  peninsula  of  Denmark 
between  its   extremities. 

West  Denmark  and  Norway  look  outward 
upon  the  ocean,  whose  shores  the  Scandinav- 
ians were  to  harry  and  conquer.  East  Den- 
mark and  Sweden  look  inward  upon  the  Baltic 
and  Europe.  They  planted  settlers  north  of 
the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  east  of  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  and  placed  a  Varangian  Prince  on 
the  Russian  throne  (see  page  457)- 

From  the  human  hive  of  Sweden,  the  Goths 
swarmed  to  Germany  and  southern  Russia 
and  thence  to  Italy  and  Spain,  leaving  their 
name  everywhere  in  Sweden,  as  at  Gothenburg 
and  in  the  fabulously  rich  Gotland,  where  'the 
women  spun  with  distaffs  of  gold"  (pp.  453-4)- 

In  like  manner,  from  overcrowded  Norway 
great  waves  of  emigration  flowed  to  the  plains 
of  the  Rhine  and  Elbe.  The  ocean,  however, 
opened  larger  opportunity.  Romance  attaches 
to  raids  by  sea,  and  the  term  viking  has  a 
lordly  sound.  But  viking,  from  an  old  Norse 
word,  means  freebooter,  or  pirate;  and  nothing 
more  than  pirates  the  heathen  vikings  were ; 
brave,  looting,  kidnapping,  burning,  and  then 
fleeing  in  their  high-pointed  galleys.  For  two 
centuries  they  were  the  curse  of  the  British 
Islands  and  of  France.  Then  they  began  to 
remain  on  the  lands  they  had  ravaged  and  to 
resist  later  pirates  like  themselves. 

The  Norwegians  today  inherit  all  the  bra- 
very and  sea  skill  of  the  vikings,  without  their 
barbarism  and  cruelty.  In  1913  they  had  a 
larger  tonnage  of  merchant  shipping  than  any 
other  country  except  Great  Britain,  the  United 
States  and  Germany.  The  Scandinavian  immi- 
grants into  the  United  States  have  been  nu- 
merous and  Avelcome. 

In  1864  Prussia  seized  the  Danish  provinces 
of  Schleswig  and  Holstein,  thus  appropriating 
over  seven  thousand  square  miles  of  territory 
and  a  million  and  a  half  people. 

In  the  Kingdom  of  Denmark,  in  1918,  there 
were  about  3,000,000  inhabitants.  Denmark 
possesses  Greenland  and  Iceland.  Norway  had 
about  2,400,000  inhabitants  in  1910;  Sweden. 
5,758,000  in  1916. 

The  great  majority  of  the  Scandinavians  are 

fair-haired,  blue-eyed,   light-complexioned  and 

long-headed.     In  general  the  Norwegians  and 

Danes  are  democratic;  the  Swedes  less  so. 

Christianity  was  definitely  established  among 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "In  Beautiful  Delecarlia,"  by  Lillian  Gore 
(May,  1909)- 


the  tliree  nations  in  the  eleventh  century  after 
obstinate  resistance  by  the  natives.  All  are 
now  intensely  Protestant. 

The  ancient  Scandinavians  had  a  common 
Teutonic  language  known  as  Donsh  Tunga, 
called  by  the  Norwegians  Old  Norsk.  This 
the  Norwegians,  who  settled  in  Iceland  in  the 
tenth  century,  carried  with  them.  Into  Nor- 
way four  centuries  later  Queen  Margaret  in- 
troduced Danish,  and  Norsk  or  Norse  is  now 
used  only  by  the  peasantry.  But  in  Iceland 
the  old  tongue  survives  in  purity.  Danish, 
spoken  with  strong  Norwegian  accent,  is 
readily  understood  in  Sweden,  and  Swedish, 
with  greater  difficulty,  by  the  Danes. 

Thorwaldsen,  the  sculptor,  and  Hans  Chris- 
tian Anderson,  author  of  the  fairy  tales,  were 
Danes;  Ole  15ull,  the  violinist;  the  explorer, 
Nansen,  and  Amundsen,  the  discoverer  of  the 
South  Pole,  Norwegians ;  Frederika  Bremer, 
the  authoress  ;  Jenny  Lind,  the  "Swedish  Night- 
ingale," and  Linnaeus,  father  of  botany,  Swedes. 

The  three  nations,  though  sometimes  under 
one  sovereign,  have  often  fought  one  another, 
Norway  in  heart  if  not  in  arms  generally  on 
the  side  of  Denmark.  Now  the  three  are  not 
unfriendly.  None  the  less,  songs  and  plays, 
rehearsing  victories  over  the  Danes,  are  al- 
ways popular  in  Swedish  theaters. 

THE  DUTCH  * 

This  name,  formerly  comprehensive  of  all 
the  Germans  and  from  all  its  etymology  signi- 
fying popular  or  national,  is  now  applied  in 
English  only  to  the  people  and  language  of  the 
Netherlands. 

Their  country  being  below  sea-level,  they 
wrested  the  land  from  the  ocean  by  dikes.  In 
the  sixteenth  century  they  defeated  Philip  II 
of  Spain  while  at  the  height  of  his  power.  In 
the  seventeenth  century  they  checked  the  there- 
tofore victorious  career  of  Louis  XIV  and  con- 
tended on  equal  terms  with  England  for  the 
mastery  of  the  seas.  Such  achievements  by  a 
people  numerically  weak  attracted  the  atten- 
tion of  Europe  and  in  England  mado  the  Neth- 
erlanders  preeminently  the  Dutch. 

They  were  the  first  people  to  afford  an  asy- 
lum for  free  thought.  People,  elsewhere  ostra- 
cised, betook  themselves  to  Amsterdam  or  Rot- 
terdam as  later  to  London  or  Geneva.  Our 
Pilgrim  Fathers,  persecuted  at  home,  found 
refuge  in  the  Netherlands  for  twelve  years  be- 
fore sailing  for  the  New  World  in  the  May- 
floii'cr. 

The  long  conflict  with  Philip  II  revealed  and 
intensified  the  character  of  the  people.  All  the 
Netherlanders  were  equal  in  love  of  liberty. 
But  the  northern  provinces  were  agricultural 

*  See  also,  in  Nation.m,  Geographic  Mag.\- 
ziNE,  "Holland  as  Seen  from  a  Dutch  Win- 
dow," by  James  Howard  Gore  (September, 
1908)  ;  "Glimpses  of  Holland,"  by  William 
Wisner  Chapin  (January,  1915L  and  "The  City 
of  Jacqueline."  by  Florence  Craig  Albrecht 
(January,  1915)- 


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THE   NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


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and  Protestant  and  all  spoke  Flemish  or  Frisian. 
The  southern  provinces  were  industrial  and 
Roman  Catholic  and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
people  spoke  French.  These  conllicting  inter- 
ests resulted  in  separation.  The  northern  be- 
came the  States  General  of  Holland.  The 
southern  remained  under  Spanish  or  Austrian 
rule  until  the  French  Revolution.  Forced  to- 
gether on  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the  southern  or 
Belgian  provinces  broke  away  in  1830  and 
formed  themselves  into  the  kingdom  of  Bel- 
gium. 

There  were  in  19 16  about  6,600,000  Dutch. 
The  old  Frisian  element  is  still  strong  in  the 
north,  though  partly  assimilated  by  the  pre- 
dominant Dutch.  Despite  the  influx  of  for- 
eigners, the  character  of  the  people  and  the 
racial  stock  have  been  little  modified.  Hugo 
Grotius,  the  father  of  international  law,  and 
Erasmus  were  Dutch. 

The  Netherlands  had  a  prominent  share  in 
discovery  and  in  the  settlement  of  the  New 
World.  New  York  was  long  the  province  of 
New  Netherlands;  the  city  was  New  Amster- 
dam. Dutch  influence  was  one  of  the  strong- 
est factors  in  shaping  American  political  insti- 
tutions. Two  Presidents  of  the  United  States 
were  of  Dutch  ancestry. 

THE  SWISS  =■• 

The  Swiss  of  today  present  a  more  interest- 
ing subject  of  study  than  does  the  unsolved 
problem  of  their  remote  ancestors,  and  of  the 
occupants  of  the  pile  dwellings  in  their  lakes. 
They  are  the  direct  descendants  of  the  Latin- 
ized Celtic  Helvetii,  of  the  warlike  Alemanni 
who  pushed  into  their  mountains  from  the 
north,  of  Burgundians  coming  from  the  west 
after  sojourn  in  France,  of  Rh^etii  on  the  east 
and  of  Italians  fleeing  from  the  south.  _  Di- 
versitv  and  tolerance  were  their  characteristics 
from  'the  first.  It  was  the  "Men"  of  Uri,  the 
"Community"  of  Schwytz  and  the  "Associa- 
tion" of  Unter-Walden  who  drew  up  in  Latin 
their  "Everlasting  League"  in  I2gi. 

The  story  of  William  Tell  and  the  Oath  of 
Rutli,  though  they  disappear  from  authentic 
history,  are  instinct  with  the  spirit  which 
won  "the  small  battles  of  immortal  memory," 
Morgarten,  Scmbach,  Nrefels,  Alorat,  Keppel, 
and  innumerable  more.  Zurich  and  Geneva 
have  since  been  centers  of  culture,  but  the 
three  Forest  Cantons  are  the  synonyms  of 
heroism  and  liberty. 

The  Cantons  have  slowly  increased  _  from 
three  before  i.ioo,  ten  before  1500,  all  in  the 
vallev  of  the  Aar,  to  the  present  twenty-two. 
Valais,  Neuchatel  and  Geneva  in  1815  were 
the  last  additions. 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "In  Valais,"  by  Louise  Murray  (March, 
1910)  ;  "A  Woman's  Climbs  in  the  High  Alps," 
by  Dora  Keen  (Tulv,  iQii)  :  "Mont  Blanc  and 
the  Swiss  Alps."  by  W.  W.  Hyde  (August, 
1913),  and  "The  Citizen  Army  of  Switzerland" 
(November,  1915)- 


Fifty-seven  per  cent  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Protestants  and  forty-three  per  cent  Roman 
Catholic.  Seventy  per  cent  are  German-speak- 
ing, twenty-two  per  cent  French-speaking, 
nearly  seven  per  cent  Italian,  and  slightly  over 
one  per  cent  Romansch,  all  equally  Swiss.  In 
the  Canton  of  Grisons,  and  nowhere  else, 
Ladin  is  spoken,  "a  laggard  sister  of  French 
and  Italian."  German,  French  and  Italian  are 
equally  oflicial  languages.  Of  the  .^,880,000 
inhabitants,  550,000  are  foreign  residents.  The 
area  of  Switzerland  is  about  the  same  as  that 
of  Maryland  and  Delaware  united. 

Adjustment  of  cantonal,  individual,  and 
racial  interests  has  not  been  easy.  The  Swiss, 
until  within  the  last  seventy  years,  have  ex- 
perienced internal  dissensions  and  civil  war. 
But  the  goal  of  a  well-nigh  perfect  union  has 
been  reached. 

Their  "twenty-two  small  States,  differing 
from  each  other  in  nearly  every  point,  re- 
ligious, political,  social,  industrial,  physical, 
and  linguistic,"  constitute  a  federal  republic 
which  in  maintenance  of  pulilic  welfare,  in- 
dividual rights  and  general  harmony  is  unsur- 
passed among  tlie  political  creations  of  all 
time. 

THE  ITALIANS* 

One  of  the  marvels  of  human  history  is  the 
extraordinary  Italian  race  that  for  2,000  years 
has  blessed  the  world  with  one  succession  of 
geniuses — inventors,  musicians,  authors,  crea- 
tors of  inspiration  and  advancement — from 
which  all  other  peoples  have  benefited. 

The  Italians,  like  the  Americans,  are  a  most 
composite  people.  Nowhere  else  in  Europe 
have  so  many  foreign  elements  fused  with  th» 
native  element  to  produce  a  modern  nation. 
Successive  fusion  was  the  practice  at  Rome 
from  the  time  the  city  comprised  hardly  more 
than  the  Palatine  Hill,  even  down  to  the  time 
it  became  a  world  empire.  Since  then  cir- 
cumstances rather  than  a  basic  principle  have 
determined  fusion. 

Roman  citizens  were  the  direct  ancestors  of 
the  Italians.  But  not  they  alone.  At  the  time 
of  Christ  very  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Italy 
were  slaves.  They  were  the  strongest,  most 
perfect  physically,  and  most  capable  from 
among  the  peoples  the  Romans  subdued. 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "Austro-Italian  Mountain  Frontiers" 
(April,  1915)  ;  "Frontier  Cities  of  Italy,"  by 
Florence  Craig  Albreclit  (June,  1915)  ;  "Italy, 
the  Gifted  Mother  of  Civilization,"  by  Arthur 
Stanley  Riggs  (October,  1916)  :  "Our  Littlest 
Ally"  (San  IMarino),  by  Alice  Rohe  (August, 
1918)  :  "Little  Known  Sardinia."  by  Helen 
Dunstan  Wright  (August,  1916)  ;  "A  Country 
Where  Going  to  America  Is  an  Industry" 
(Sicily),  by  Arthur  H.  Warner  (December, 
1909)  ;  "Gems  of  the  Italian  Lakes,"  by  .-K.  E. 
Mayer  (August,  191.1),  and  "The  Battle-field 
of  Nations  and  of  Nature"  (Sicily),  by  Mrs. 
George  C.  Bosson,  Jr.  (January,  1909). 


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Like  Nebuchadnezzar  at  Jerusalem,  the  Ro- 
man conqueror  chose  and  carried  off  "men  of 
valor,''  "the  craftsmen  and  smiths,"  but  left 
behind  "the  poorest  sort  of  the  people  of  the 
land."  For  centuries  at  Rorne  the  school 
teachers  were  always  slaves,  their  office  desig- 
nated by  a  Greek  title.  The  proudest  families 
of  Italy  have  no  need  to  blush  that  the  blood 
of  Roman  slaves  courses  in  their  veins. 

From  each  of  the  innumerable  invasions 
from  the  north  many  permanent  settlers  re- 
mained. 

Foreign  interference  and  domination  fills  the 
story  of  Italy  through  the  Middle  Ages  and 
far  into  modern  times,  relieved  by  isolated, 
brilliant  eflorts  of  City  States  ^it  self-govern- 
ment and  order.  Discouragement  pervaded  all 
classes  of  society. 

And  vet,  while  swinging  between  despotism 
and  anarchy,  Italy  evolved  the  most  beautiful 
of  modern  languages,  a  rich  and  varied  litera- 
ture, and  the  loftiest  expression  of  art.  Fur- 
thermore, she  rendered  the  world  her  debtor 
for  inventions  and  discoveries  of  the  highest 
rank  and  for  precious  contributions  to  the  hu- 
manities and  inductive  science. 

Moreover,  from  her  ancient  capital,  as  the 
spiritual  center  of  the  Roman  Church._  was 
radiating  the  sole  humanizing  influence  in  an 
age  of  universal  turbulence  and  lawlessness. 

One  shrinks  from  the  attempt  to  name  a  few 
of  the  greatest  Italians.  It  is  well-nigh  impos- 
sible to  select  from  so  numerous  a  host.  There 
is  "not  a  department  of  human  knowledge  from 
which  Italv  has  not  extracted  glory;  no  art 
that  she  has  not  adorned"— Virgil,  Marcus 
Aurelius,  Dante,  Tasso,  Columbus.  Raphael, 
Michel  Angelo,  Da  Vinci,  Galileo,  Canova, 
Savonarola,  Torricelli,  Galvani,  Volta,  IMarconi. 
In  1870  long-disappointed  dreams  were  real- 
ized and  Italy  was  reunited.  She  has  since 
lived  under  a  constitutional  system  which  re- 
sembles that  of  England  more  than  does  the 
system  of  any  other  country  on  the  continent. 
'  No  mere  consideration  of  material  gain  in 
territory  and  population  nerved  the  Italian  arm 
in  the  last  war.  but  the  burning  desire  that 
Tyrolian  and  Friulian  kindred  should  enjoy  the 
freedom  and  good  government  which  the  eman- 
cipated in  the  mother  country  had  won. 

Italy  in  1917  had  about  37,000.000  inhabitants 
and  an  area  of  over  110,000  miles.  Since  then 
the  Italians  have  conquered  the  enemy  and  the 
Alps,  and  their  brethren,  formerly  under  a  for- 
eign yoke,  have  been  redeemed.  Historical 
causes  have  produced  many  differences  of  dia- 
lect, which  are  gradually'  disappearing.  The 
Tuscan  of  Florence  is  the  purest  Italian. 

Sicily  and  Sardinia  are  of  nearly  equal  size, 
about  10.000  square  miles;  but  Sicily,  with  al- 
most 3,000.000  inhabitants,  is  four  times  the 
more  populous. 

The  three  islands— Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  Cor- 
sica—the latter  a  department  t)f  France,  have 
had  an  existence  as  chequered  as  the  mainland. 
In  Sardinia,  the  least  disturbed  by  invasion, 
there    is    very    small    intermixture    of    foreign 


blood.  The  Sardinians  are  the  shortest  of  the 
Italians.  Hence  Sergi  infers  they  are  descend- 
ants of  an  early  pigmy  race  from  central  Africa. 

Corsica  and  Sicily  have  been  submerged  by 
every  wave  of  Mediterranean  invasion  and 
have  changed  masters  many  times.  Corsica  is 
content  as  part  of  France,  but  in  early  race 
and  modern  language  resembles  Italy  more 
than  do  Sicily  and  Sardinia.  All  were  early 
inhabited  by  Greek  colonists.  The  Greeks  main- 
tain that  the  Bonapartes  were  of  Greek  origin, 
originally  called  Kalemerida,  of  which  Buona- 
parte is  the  literal  translation. 

The  islanders  are  sober,  courteous,  proud, 
implacable,  and  have  high  sense  of  honor. 
Physically  they  are  strong  and  hardy. 

THE    MALTESE 

Before  the  ascendancy  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans  the  Phoenician  language  was  supreme 
in  the  Mediterranean.  In  every  colony,  except 
one.  which  the  Phoenicians  founded,  their  lan- 
guage has  been  superseded  and  forgotten.  But 
Malta,  though  a  British  possession,  is  still,  as 
it  was  called  by  Diodorus  Siculus,  who  lived 
in  the  time  of  Christ,  "a  colony  of  the  Phoeni- 
cians." 

One-seventh  of  the  Maltese  understand  Ital- 
ian, which  is  the  language  of  the  law  courts. 
One-tenth  can  speak  English,  the  use  of  which 
is  increasing.  Practically  all  of  them  speak 
daily  the  lingua  Maltese,  once  considered  "Un 
arabe  corrompu  mele  d'italien."  now  recognized 
as  not  Arab  at  all,  but  a  Phoenician  dialect. 
This  unique  survival  of  an  elsewhere  extinct 
language  surpasses  in  interest  all  the  many 
memorable  invasions  and  sieges  which  Malta 
has  known. 

The  civil  population  of  the  three  islands — 
]Malta.  Gozo.  Comino — was  223,741  in  1917. 
Though  the  aristocracy  are  partly  Xorman. 
Italian,  or  Spanish,  the  people  have  been  little 
affected  by  foreign  influence.  They  are  of  an 
alert  and  well-proportioned  figure,  with  ex- 
pressive and  usually  attractive  faces,  in  general 
lighter  than  the  southern  Italians.  They  are 
industrious  and  frugal  and  are  devoted  to  their 
families  and  the  Roman  Catholic  Church. 

The  rocky  and  barren  islands  afford  scant 
sustenance,  so  the  men  are  forced  to  seek  em- 
ployment throughout  the  Levant,  bringing  their 
earnings  home  after  each  absence.  They  claim 
that  Hannibal  was  born  in  Malta.  At  any  rate 
they  could  attempt  converse  with  him  or  with 
Queen  Dido  or  Hiram  of  Tyre,  should  those 
ancient  personages  return  to  earth. 

THE  RACES  OF  THE  IBERIAN 
PENINSULA 

Geography  does  not  account  for  the  exist- 
ence of  two  peoples  side  by  side,  absolutely 
distinct,  yet  in  most  respects  similar,  with  no 
apparent  cause  for  separation.  Nature,  from 
the  Pyrenees  to  Gibraltar,  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  Atlantic,  indicates  common  na- 


I'lLitoKiapli  l.y  A.  15.  Wi 
A    NOkWKGIAN    MAIM)    Ml'I.I.KU    AT    WOUK    OX    AN    UPI^AKD    FAKMSTKAD 

Scvenly  per  cent  of  tlic  ana  of  N<irway  is  harn-n  and  more  than  twenty  per  cent  is  forest 
land,  yet  tlic  remainiiiK  area  (less  tlian  onc-tcnth  tlic  total)  employs  directly  or  indirectly 
fully  forty  per  cent  of  tiie  population. 


SM 


THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC   MAG 


AZTNE 


515 


DEMURE    DAUGHTERS    OF    TULIPLAND:    HOLLAND 

There  were  in  1916  about  6,600,000  Dutch.  Despite  the  influx  of  foreigners  into  the 
Netherlands,  the  character  of  the  people  and  the  racial  stock  have  been  little  modified  (see 
text,  page  509). 


tonal  interests  and  a  common  destiny.  There 
are  no  outward  barriers.  The  same  mountain 
chains,  the  same  deep  valleys,  the  same  rivers, 
traversing  both,  create  natural  bonds  (see  map 
on  page  506). 

Only  by  a  sort  of  mental  wrench  can  the  in- 
terwoven threads  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
racial  life  be  torn  apart.  But  the  prominence 
of  each,  the  great  role  which  each  has  filled  in 
world  affairs,  require  that  they  be  discussed 
separately.  At  first,  however,  we  must  con- 
sider what  the  peninsula  bequeathed  them  in 
common. 


Phoenician  and  Greek  traders  or  colonists, 
and  even  the  later-arrived  Carthaginians,  were 
apparently  welcomed  by  the  early  Iberi  and 
Celtiberi.  Then  followed  the  familiar  story  of 
ineffective  resistance  to  Roman  aggression. 
When  tlie  Teutonic  invaders  poured  through 
the  Pyrenees  or  doubled  them  in  their  ships, 
they  found  a  completely  Latinized  people,  en- 
joying the  full  Christian  civilization  of  Rome. 
The  Suevi  established  themselves  in  the  north- 
west angle,  between  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  the 
ocean ;  the  Vandals  spread  along  the  southern 
coasts;  the  Visi-Goths  occupied  all  the  remain- 


516 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


A   STURDY,    INDUSTRIOIJ 


Photugraph  by  KJgar  K.  Frank 
ICFFICIRNT   TRIO,   TYPICAL   OF   THIUK 
KACK— TIIK    DUTCH 

The  world  owes  much  to  tlie  folk  whose  ancestral  home  is  the  land 
wrested  from  the  sea  and  preserved  by  dikes.  Tiie  Dutch  were  the 
first  people  to  afford  an  asylum  for  free  thought.  Peoi)le  ostracized 
from  their  own  countries  hetook  themselves  to  Rottertlam  and  Am- 
sterdam, as  they  later  did  to  Lonchjn,  to  Geneva,  and  t'mally  to 
America. 


ing  country,   even   across  tlic   Pyrenees  as   far 
as  the  Loire,  in  France. 

In  unusual  dej^ree  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
lanjiuaRc,  life,  and  character  are  the  product  of 
iiistorical  development.  \'et  little  line  of  cleav- 
age between  them  appears  until  after  the  inva- 
sion of  the  Moslem  Saracens  and  Moors.  That 
invasion,  bej^un  in  710,  deluded  the  entire  penin- 
sula. Charlemagne,  hastenin^r  to  repel  the  in- 
vaders, was  di'feated  at  liie  Pass  of  Ronces- 
valles  and  hurled  back.  The  resistance  of  the 
Christians,  at  first  hopeless,  never  relaxed. 


THE   PORTUGUESE* 

The  Portuguese  poets 
attribute  the  separate  ex- 
istence of  their  nation 
and  language  to  the  Lusi- 
tani,  who  once  occupied 
the  west  of  the  penin- 
sula as  far  north  as  the 
Douro,  and  are  immor- 
talized by  their  intrepid 
attacks  upon  the  Romans. 
At  least  from  them  Lusi- 
tania,  the  poetical  Latin 
name  of  the  country,  is 
derived. 

Portugal  was  born  on 
tlie  battlefield.  That  was 
the  age  of  chivalry.  War 
against  the  infidels,  ante- 
dating the  Crusades,  at- 
tracted the  foremost 
knights  of  Christendom. 
Among  them  was  Henry 
of  Burgundy,  in  prowess 
little  inferior  to  the  Cid. 
Alphonso  of  Castile  re- 
warded his  valor  with 
his  daughter's  hand  and 
created  him  Count  of 
I'urtus  Kale  on  the 
I  'iiuro.  The  son  of 
Henry,  Alphonso,  against 
desperate  odds,  inflicted 
a  great  defeat  on  the 
Moors  at  Ourique  in 
1 139.  His  exultant  sol- 
diers proclaimed  h  i  m 
King  of  Portus  Kale, 
now  become   Portugal. 

Henry  refused  the 
crown  conferred  only  by 
the  army.  A  States  Gen- 
eral was  convened  to 
overcome  his  scruples. 
That  assembly  is  remark- 
able. In  it,  for  the  tirst 
lime  in  European  history, 
representatives  of  the 
common  people  sat  and 
acted  as  full  equals  of 
the   clergy   and   nobles. 

The  assembly  showed 
the  instinct  of  newborn 
nationality.  Its  enact- 
ments frequently  repeat  Portugal  and  Portu- 
guese, as  if  the  words  were  pleasant.  The  at- 
tacks of  Castile,  which  regarded  the  Portuguese 
as  rebellious  vassals,  unified  the  nation.  Their 
less  sonorous,  more  nasal  western  dialect,  here- 
tofore disdained,  was  now  encouraged  as  a 
brand  of  nationality. 

♦Sec  also,  in  Nation.m.  Gkocrmmiic  M.\c..\- 
zi.Ni:,  "Tlie  Greatness  of  Little  Portugal,"  by 
t)swal(l  Crawford,  and  "The  Woods  and  Gar- 
dens of  Pt)rtUKa!,"  by  Martin  Hume  (October, 
1910). 


COURTSHIP    AND    COOUETRV    IN    SWITZERLAND 
The  federal  republic  of  Switzerland,  composed  of  twenty-two  States  differing  one  from 
the  others  relisiouslv.  politically,  socially,  and  industrially,  mamtams  m  an  unsurpassed  man- 
ner the  public  welfare,  individual  rights,  and  general  harmony   (see  text,  page  511). 


S17 


518 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


1':  ■■'   y!  i;.!i  liy  A.  1".  Slifrinaii 
"OPF.N    MV    IIKART    AND    VOU    WILI,    SICK    GRAVlCD    INSIDE    OF 
IT    'iTALV'''     (see    ALSO    PAGE    449) 

The  Italians,  like  tlie  Americans,  are  a  most  composite  people.  No- 
where else  in  Europe  have  so  many  foreign  elements  fused  with  the 
native  clement  to  produce  a  modern  nation  (see  text,  page  511). 


The  Portuguese  liave  always  been  a  warlike 
and  proud  people.  The  spirit  of  that  first 
democratic  assembly,  even  when  under  seeming 
eclipse,  has  never  been  wholly  lost.  That  si)irit 
finally  drove  out  the  Moslems  and  extended 
their  language  beyond  its  natural  frontiers.  It 
rendered  Portugal  in  the  fifteentii  century  the 
foremost  maritime,  connnercial.  and  colonial 
power  in  the  world.  It  sent  Diaz,  Da  Gama, 
and  Magellan  across  many  seas  and  demon- 
strated the  earth  a  sphere  by  circumnavigation. 
The  same  spirit  today  fired  the  sons  of  I'or- 
tugal  to  act  their  valiant  part  on  the  fields  of 
Flanders  and  made  them  copartners  in  sacrifice 
and  victory 


Camoens,  the  preemi- 
nent writer  of  Portugal, 
inspired  by  love  of  coun- 
try, in  the  "Lusiads"  em- 
bodied the  romantic 
"epic  of  discovery"  and 
shaped  and  stabilized  the 
Portuguese  language. 
Literary  Portuguese  is 
still  called  "the  speech  of 
Camoens."  His  work, 
though  less  creative  than 
that  of  Dante,  is  no  less 
permanent. 

THE   SPANISH* 

The  peninsula  writhed 
beneath  the  heel  of  the 
Moslem  for  eight  hun- 
dred years.  No  other 
people  has  incarnated  a 
national  tragedy  so  pro- 
longed. The  Portuguese 
farther  west  suffered 
less  in  the  intensity  of 
the  struggle,  which 
wrought  itself  into  the 
soul  of  the  Spanish  char- 
acter. To  this  day  Span- 
ish peasants  address  one 
another  as  caballero.  or 
knight.  The  struggle 
produced  that  rigor  and 
intensity  of  religious  con- 
viction which  found  ex- 
pression in  Torquemada 
and  the  Inquisition  and 
which  could  not  endure 
peoples  of  alien  faiths, 
like  the  Jews  and  Moors, 
on  Spanish  soil. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
joint  sovereigns  of  re- 
united Spain,  inflicted  the 
final  overthrow  upon  the 
Moslems  at  Granada  in 
I -40-'. 

From  that  camp  at 
Granada  Columbus,  com- 
missioned by  the  Queen, 
went  forth  to  the  voy- 
age that  brought  to  lui- 
rope  the  New  World.  To  the  Spanish  and  the 
Portuguese  of  riglit  belong  the  greatest  glory 
for  the  epochal  discoveries  of  that  marvelous 
generation,  (^ther  nations  emulated,  but  could 
not  ecjual.  their  achievements  upon  the  sea. 

The  decline  of  Spain  from  her  preeminence 
and  the  suppression  of  Portuguese  in(lei)end- 
ence  resulted  from  the  reign  of  Philip  11, 
great-grandson  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

The  many  invasions  of  the  peninsula  had 
contributed    many    additions    to    the    original 

*  See  also,  in  N.\TinN.\r.  GKor.R.M'inc  M.\r.A- 
ziNiv,  "Roinantic  Spain,"  by  Charles  Upson 
Clark   (March,  1910). 


THE  NATIONAL  GEOGRAPHIC  MAGAZINE 


519 


Iberian  race.  The  Cliristian  kingdoms  devel- 
oped individual  differences  of  habit  and  char- 
acter.    So  did  every  province  or  district. 

In  the  extreme  south,  Andalusia,  whose  name 
survives  from  Vandal  conquerors,  has  been 
partly  or  wholly  occupied  by  Phcenicians,  Car- 
thaginians, Romans,  Vandals,  Suevi,  Goths, 
Jews,  Moors,  and  Arabs.  There  has  developed 
an  Oriental  type,  handsome  and  languorous, 
good-tempereii  and  ready-witted. 

The  Asturians  may  well  be  proud.  Their 
mountain  fastnesses  were  the  only  region  in 
the  whole  peninsula  which  the  Moslems  were 
unable  to  subdue.  The  Cave  of  Covadonga, 
whence  the  Christian  reconquest  of  Spain  be- 
gan, is  sacred  like  the  Swiss  Cave  of  Riitli. 
Since  1388  the  title  of  the  heir  to  the  Spanish 
crown  has  been  Prince  of  the  Asturias,  and 
after  coronation  the  king  becomes  Coulit  of 
Covadonga.  Isolated,  hard-working,  thrifty, 
yet  by  taxation  and  harsh  land  laws  kept  al- 
ways landless  and  poor,  they  retain  their  spirit 
of  independence  and  their  pride  of  history  and 
race. 

Among  the  Catalans  one  often  remarks  blue 
eyes,  flaxen  hair,  and  light  complexions,  atavis- 
tic indications  of  Gothic  ancestry.  The  lan- 
guage spoken  differs  from  other  Spanish,  being 
partly  a  decayed  dialect  of  Provengal.  In  it 
the  troubadours,  after  expulsion  from  France, 
sang  their  last  songs.  Catalonia  is  a  hive  of 
universal  and  well-directed  industry.  The 
large-minded  enterprise  of  the  Catalans  has 
made  Barcelona,  in  spite  of  natural  obstacles, 
a  city  of  630,000  inhabitants  and  the  commer- 
cial and  industrial  capital  of  Spain.  They  are 
notable  for  their  revolutionary  spirit  and  their 
instant  opposition  to  whatever  savors  of  re- 
action. 

The  Castilians  occupy  the  vast  territories 
around  Madrid.  Theirs  is  the  purest  Spanish, 
the  medium  and  the  test  of  literary  excellence. 
They  are  haughty,  cultured,  lovers  of  the  arts. 
The  knightly  Admiral  Cervera  was  a  Castilian. 
Cervantes  and  Lope  de  Vega,  Velasquez,  and 
Rfurillo  are  great  names  of  Spanish  literature 
and  art. 

The  fifteen  Balearic  Islands  have  320,000  in- 
habitants, all  Spanish.  The  Moors,  who  held 
the  islands  over  four  hundred  years,  have  left 
a  marked  impression  on  the  physical  appear- 
ance, habits,  and  language  of  the  people.  Tlie 
language  is  also  mi.xed  with  Provcnqal. 

As  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  together 
share  in  amity  tlie  largest  of  the  Mediterranean 
peninsulas,  so  do  their  children  share  the  larger 
part  of  the  Western  Hemisphere.  From  the 
Rio  Grande  del  Norto  to  the  extremity  of  Cape 
Horn,  all  Mexico,  Central  America,  and  South 
America,  except  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  oc- 
cupied by  the  United  States,  and  British- 
Dutch-French  Guiana,  are  dominated  by  the 
languages  and  the  civilization  of  Portugal  and 
Spain. 

Brazil,  which  includes  nearly  one-half  this 
area,  and  joined  the  Entente  Allies  in  the  re- 
cent war,  is  Portuguese.  The  other  States  are 
Spanish. 


A   SENORIT.\   OF   SEVILLE 

This  devotee  of  Terpsichore  is  a  graduate  of 
one  of  the  finest  dancing  academies  of  Europe, 
for  Spaniards,  like  the  Russians  before  the  war, 
pride  themselves  upon  the  thoroughness  with 
which   their   professional   dancers   are   trained. 

THE   FRENCH* 

The  French  have  the  most  distinct  person- 
ality of  any  people  of  Europe.     This  is  partly 

*  See  also,  in  Natton.\l  Geooraphic  MAr,.\- 
zixic,  "The  France  of  Today,"  by  Major  Gen- 
eral A.  W.  (jreely  (September,  1014)  ;  "The 
World's  Debt  to  France"  (November,  1915)  ; 
"The  Beauties  of  France,"  by  Arthur  Stanley 
Riggs  (November,  1915)  ;  "The  Burden  France 
Has  Borne,"  by  Granville  Fortescue  (April, 
1917)  ;  ''Our  First  Alliance  and  Our  Second 
Alliance,"  by  Ambassador  Jusserand  (June, 
1917)  ;  "In  French  Lorraine,"  by  Harriet  Chal- 
mers Adams  (November-December,  I9i7\  and 
"Our  Friends  the  French,"  by  Carl  Holliday 
(November,  1918). 


520 


THE   NATIONAL   GKOGRArHTC   MAGAZINE 


HOW    THE    SPANISH     MILKMAID    GUARANTEES     HER    CUSTOMERS    AGAI! 

DILUTED    PRODUCT 

The  scene  is  a  street  corner  in  the  residence  section  of  the  famous  city  of  Valencia.  In 
the  veins  of  the  inhabitants  flows  the  blood  of  many  races  which  have  occupied  this  region — 
Iberians,  Greeks,  Carthaginians,  Romans.  Visi-Goths.  and  Moors.  The  Moorish  influence 
has  been  particularly  tenacious,  both  in  the  features  and  in  the  dialect  of  the  people  as  well 
as  in  the  architecture  of  the  city.  The  first  printing  press  in  Spain  is  said  to  have  been  cct 
up  here  in  1474. 


due  to  the  complexity  of  their  origin  and  to 
the  unique  situation  of  the  country  they  in- 
habit. They  are  the  product,  through  cen- 
turies of  development,  of  the  basic  element, 
the  Celt,  early  permeated  by  the  civilization  of 
the  Greco-Latin  and  later  supplemented  by  the 
Teuton.  To  no  other  European  people  have 
three  great  races  so  contributed  their  best. 
These  contributions  are  not  merely  united,  but 
ingrained  in  the  Frenchman's  fiber. 


France  is  a  territorial  belt  connecting  central 
and  southwestern  Europe.  Situa-tcd  between 
the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean,  its  rivers 
flow  into  both.  Hence  it  becomes  the  natural 
thoroughfare  of  commerce  and  ideas.  No 
great  idea  has  taken  possession  of  the  world 
without  either  originating  in  or  passing  through 
France.  Ideas  born  elsewhere  have  been  car- 
ried in  France  to  their  fullest  development. 

All  Frenchmen  do  not  speak  French.    At  the 


522 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGI^VPHIC    MAGAZINE 


extreme  ends  of  France  arc  four  small  groups 
whose  mother-tongue  is  another  language— the 
200,000  Flemings  near  the  Straits  of  Dover;  the 
200.000  Basques  in  the  far  southwest ;  the  250,- 
000  Catalans  in  the  eastern  Pyrenees;  and 
1,000,000  Bretons  in  Brittany— all  equally  pa- 
triotic children  of  France. 

The  Bretons  are  Celts.  Their  rugged  pen- 
insula was  formerly  called  Armorica.  The  in- 
flux of  Britons  from  Greater  Britain,  escap- 
ing from  the  Angles  and  Saxons,  more  than 
doubled  the  inhabitants  and  bestowed  the  pres- 
ent name.  The  area  of  the  peninsula  is  less 
than  L0,(X)O  square  miles ;  yet  in  no  other  re- 
gion of  equal  size  upon  the  globe  are  speakers 
of  a  Celtic  language  in  the  majority,  and  here 
they  are  constantly  decreasing. 

Some  recent  ethnologists,  basing  their  con- 
clusion on  skulls  found  in  the  country,  question 
whether  the  Bretons  are  Celts  at  all.  Until 
more  convincing  arguments  to  the  contrary  are 
presented,  one  is  justified  in  reckoning  the 
Bretons  as  worthy  members  of  the  Celtic  race. 
They  are  simple  and  untutored,  conservative, 
religious,  fearless,  independent,  and  picturesque. 

The  Langue  d'Oui  and  Langue  d'Oc,  noted 
upon  the  map,  do  not  signify  merely  local 
medireval  differences  in  the  manner  of  saying 
yes  in  French.  Both  are  legacies — one  from 
the  Merovingian  Frankish  kingdom,  which 
reached  no  farther  south  than  the  Loire,  and 
the  otlier  from  the  Visi-Gothic  kingdom,  which 
spanned  the  Pyrenees  along  the  eastern  coast 
of  Spain,  and,  above  all,  from  Provence,  the 
Roman  Provincia.  Tlie  two  coincide  with  tlie 
physical  and  temperamental  distinctions  which 
characterize  northern  and  southern  France. 

To  the  ethnic  composition  of  the  latter  not 
only  Celts,  Latins,  and  Teutons  have  contrib- 
uted, but  prehistoric  Ligurians,  Phoenician  and 
Greek  colonists,  and  Moors  and  Saracens  from 
Spain.  The  dialect  hence  developed,  flowing, 
exuberant,  tempestuous,  became  the  fit  instru- 
ment of  the  trf)ubadour  and  of  early  romance. 

But  that  other  dialect,  which  began  in  a 
little  island  of  the  Seine,  where  once  all  of 
Paris  was  included,  was  becoming  the  real 
French.  Were  all  histories  of  France  de- 
.stroyed,  the  whole  story  would  survive  in  the 
successive  phases  of  the  Langue  d'Oui.  Tn 
1519  l'"rancis  T  decreed  that  Parisian  French, 
already  the  popular  speech,  should  be  the  offi- 
cial language  of  the  land.  ICxact,  concise, 
capable  of  every  shade  of  polite  inflection,  it 
speedily  took  its  place  as  the  organ  of  di- 
plomacy and  of  international  relations. 

It  has  been  said  that  "the  French  language 
r-inde  the  I'rench  nation."  More  truly,  each 
made  the  other,  and  they  struggled  to  niaUirity 
side  by  side.  The  language  is  the  hVenchnian 
put  intf)  sjjcech — clear,  sociable,  attractive,  sym- 
pathetic. So,  four  hundred  years  ago,  the  most 
cosmoj)()litan  of  travelers,  Marco  Polo,  desiring 
in  his  (k'nocse  prison  to  secure  the  attention 
of  the  world,  decided  that  French  was  the  fit 
language  in  which  to  write  the  story  of  his 
wanderings. 

Mention   anywhere   the    iMeiich    today.     One 


will  not  think  of  their  literature  or  science,  un- 
surpassed, or  of  their  immense  achievements  in 
every  field  of  thought  and  industry — of  Pas- 
teur, Lavoisier,  Cuvier,  Bichat,  \  oltaire,  Kous- 
seau,  Rosa  Bonheur,  Moliere,  Racine,  Cor- 
neille,  Victor  Hugo,  Balzac,  Ampere.  Instead, 
a  picture  will  rise  before  the  mind,  pitifully 
inadequate  and  incomplete,  of  the  men  and 
women  of  France  during  these  last  intermi- 
nable years.  A  glory  rests  upon  them,  tran- 
scending all  the  glory  of  their  past. 

.\.  great  poet,  not  a  Frenchman,  once  wrote: 
"France  is  the  soldier  of  God."  For  more  than 
fourteen  centuries  she  has  seemed  to  act,  to 
fight,  to  conquer  for  the  world.  On  her  soil, 
and  very  largely  by  her  sons,  were  fought  the 
decisive  battles  of  Chalons  C-I51),  which  broke 
the  power  of  the  Huns;  of  Tours  (7,12),  which 
overwhelmed  the  Moslems;  of  \'almy  (1702), 
which  began  "a  new  era  in  the  world's  his- 
torv";  and  of  the  Marne  C1914  and  1918), 
which  crushed  a  foe  more  relentless  and  more 
friehtful  than  Moslem  or  Hun. 

Humanity  is  debtor  to  the  French  until  the 
end  of  time. 

THE    n.\SQUES 

The  Basques  are  an  interesting  people  who 
live  on  both  sides  of  the  central  Pyrenees  in 
France  and  Spain  and  on  the  southeast  shore 
of  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  They  number  not  far 
from  700,000,  of  whom  more  than  100,000  have 
emigrated  to  America,  mostly  to  .\rgentina  and 
Chile,  and,  unfortunately,  few  to  the  United 
States. 

They  name  themselves  Eskualdanak,  posses- 
sors of  the  Eskuara,  their  native  tongue.  This 
language,  utterly  apart  from  the  other  lan- 
guages of  Europe,  is  a  puzzle  to  philologists. 
Some  think  its  grammar  suggests  the  Magyar 
and  Finnic.  Otherr,  consider  it  a  modern  form 
of  the  otherwise  extinct  Iberian.  They  use  the 
Latin  alphabet  and  can  speak  either  I-'rench  or 
5^panish.     Their  origin  is  lost  in  obscurity. 

Devoted  children  of  the  Roman  Church,  they, 
nevertheless,  allow  their  clergy  no  influence  in 
political  or  municipal  affairs.  Priests  and  law- 
yers, as  supposedly  inclined  to  despotism,  are 
not  eligible  to  their  junta.  Conservative, 
proud,  and  self-resi)ecling,  they  are  tenacious 
of  their  rights  and  deferential  to  women. 

The  common  saying,  'Every  Basque  a  noble," 
is  justified  by  the  character  of  the  people.  Of 
splendid  i)hysique,  they  are  tireless  workmen, 
expert  se.imen,  brave  and  cajiable  soldiers. 
I'rom  Biib.'io,  their  industrial  center,  we  derive 
bilbo.  Old  l<nglisli  for  sword.  Bayonne.  an- 
other Basque  city,  gives  us  the  bayonet. 

Tunalius  Loyol.i,  founder  of  the  Jesuit  Order. 
;ind  Saint  I'Vancis  X.ivier.  the  illustrious  mis- 
sionary, were  Basques.  The  latter,  however, 
with  bluish  gray  eyes,  fair  hair  and  bc;ird, 
hardly  \\\q  feet  tall,  did  not  in  physical  appear- 
ance resemble  his  darker,  stalwart  countrvmen. 
Marshal  I'och,  Generalissimo  of  the  .Mlicd 
forces,  is  a  more  typical  Basque. 


I-     -   ^-;i.ii'Ii  bi"  lumi  P.  Albrccht 

THE   ROSE   WINDOW    IN    THE    CATHEDRAL    OF    STRASSBURG,    FRANCE 

"And  storied  windows  richly  dight. 
Casting  a  dim  religious  light." — Milton. 

This  famous  church,  the  pride  of  the  capital  of  Alsace,  was  begun  in  1176.  The  name  of 
the  architect  of  the  nave,  begun  in  1250  and  completed  in  1290,  is  unknown,  but  it  is  certain 
that  he  was  a  diligent  student  of  French  architecture,  for  the  resemblance  to  the  church  of  St. 
Denis  (finished  in  123 1)   is  marked. 


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Plu.toRiapli  l>v   \    \V   rml.r 

AN    IRISHMAN    OF   TIIIC   "OIJ)   SCHOOL" 

AltlinuRli  he  lias  appropriated  tlic  ICiikIi'sIi  laiiKuajie.  tlic  Irislinian  remains  a  tyiMcal 
Celt — typical  in  Iiahit  of  mind,  in  disposition,  cliaracter,  and  to  a  decree  in  personal  appear- 
ance. The  snhiect  of  this  ilhistration.  at  the  age  of  S.^.  walks  from  his  home  to  Oalway  and 
return  every  Thursday,  a  distance  of  lo  miles.  He  clings  to  the  costume  of  a  hyRone  day. 
Many  of  our  readers  ^aw  this  picturesipie  regalia  worn  hy  the  Irish  division  in  thc'great  1918 
I'ourth  of  July  pageant  of  the  foreign  born,  held  in  the  National  Capital. 


526 


THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


527 


THE  BELGIANS* 

THE    WALLOONS    AND    FLEMINGS 

.  The  Kingdom  of  Belgium  dates  from  1830, 
when  the  seven  Catholic  provinces  revoked  from 
distasteful  union  with  the  Kingdom  of  the 
Netherlands.  A  spirit  of  independence,  of  re- 
sentment at  injustice,  of  determination  to 
maintain  rights,  has  always  animated  this  heroic 
people. 

The  ancient  Belgse  occupied  all  Gaul  from 
north  of  the  Seine  and  west  of  the  Rhine. 
Rheims,  Soissons,  Amiens,  and  Beauvais  per- 
petuate the  names  of  the  Remi,  Suessiones, 
Ambiani,  and  Bellovaci,  their  warlike  tribes 
who  fought  against  Caesar. 

The  Belgians  now  comprise  two  main  fac- 
tors— the  Walloons  and  the  Flemings. 

The  Walloons,  from  a  common  Teutonic 
word  meaning  foreign,  are  found  in  southern 
Belgium,  where  are  Liege  and  Namur  upon  the 
Meuse;  in  the  French  department  of  Nord, 
with  its  cities  of  Lille,  Douai.  Cambrai,  and 
Valenciennes,  and  in  a  few  Rhenish  villages. 
They  speak  French  and  have  a  strong  attach- 
ment to  France. 

The  Flemings  are  more  numerous  and  occupy 
the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  and  of  the 
coast  of  Nord,  with  Dunkirk.  They  speak 
Flemish,  a  German  dialect.  Originally  German 
in  lineage,  they  are  above  all  intensely  national 
and  have  equalled  the  Walloons  in  courage  and 
devotion.  During  the  last  war  the  Germans 
resorted  to  every  artifice  to  alienate  them  from 
the  Walloons,  but  without  avail. 

Tn  1910,  of  the  7,571,000  Belgians,  3,221,000 
spoke  only  Flemish,  2,833,000  only  French,  and 
871,000  both  French  and  Flemish.  The  Bel- 
gian Government  at  first  opposed  official  use 
of  Flemish,  but  in  1878  it  was  made  equal  with 
French  in  the  courts  and  administration  and 
in  1883  in  the  schools.  The  Flemish  provinces 
were  made  bi-lingual. 

Full  religious  liberty  is  enjoyed.  The  great 
majority  of  the  people  are  presumably  Roman 
Catholic,  but  since  1891  no  questions  are  aske4 
at  the  census  regarding  communion  or  profes^ 
sion. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  world  war,  in  IQ14, 
the  area  of  the  kingdom  was  ii,373  square 
miles.  A  Conference  of  the  Great  Powers  in 
1831  determined  the  boundaries  between  Bel- 
gium and  the  Netherlands.  Though  obliged 
by  circumstances  to  recognize  Belgian  inde- 
pendence, the  Conference  did  not  sympathize 
with  the  authors  of  a  revolution.  In  conse- 
quence, the  boundary  line  was  traced  to  the 
disadvantage  of  the  Belgians.  To  the  Dutch 
were  assigned  peoples  east  of  the  Meuse,  who 
were  strongly  pro-Belgian ;  also  both  banks  of 
the  Scheldt,  thus  cutting  off  approach  by  sea 

*  See  also,  in  National  Geographic  Maga- 
zine, "Belgium  the  Innocent  Bystander,"  by 
William  Joseph  Showalter  (September,  1914), 
and  "Belgium's  Plight,''  by  John  H.  Gade 
(May,  1917). 


to  the  great  port  of  Antwerp  except  through 
Dutch  waters.  One  cannot  doubt  that  this  in- 
justice will  be  rectified.    ' 

Sixteen  years  ago  in  his  "Living  Races  of 
Europe,"  Hutchinson  said:  "Bravery,  intelli- 
gence, and  energy  are  strong  as  ever  in  the 
Belgians,  They  excel  in  the  arts  of  peace,  as 
formerly  they  were  proficient  in  the  arts  of 
war.  They  now  present  an  attractive  picture 
of  a  prosperous,  peaceable,  and  thoroughly 
comfortable  little  people." 

The  first  two  sentences  arc  still  true,  only 
intensified.  The  picture  of  the  last  sentence  it 
is  the  privilege  of  Europe  and  America  to 
restore. 

THE   IRISH 

The  word  Irish  is  derived  by  successive  steps 
from  Erin,  an  early  and  now  purely  poetic 
name  for  Ireland. 

Myths  and  legends  are  handed  down  regard- 
ing the  origin  of  the  Irish,  but  little  is  known 
of  them  with  certainty  before  the  fifth  century. 
Then  they  were  emerging  from  the  control  of 
the  Milesians,  who  had  come  no  man  can  sav 
from  where,  and  who  apparently  had  long  held 
the  greater  part  of  the  island  in  subjection. 

The  Irish,  like  the  Gaelic  Scotch  and  the  few 
inhabitants  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  belong  to  the 
Goidelic  or  Gaelic  branch  of  the  Celtic  family. 
This  Celtic  element  is  the  permanent  fact  in 
Irish  character  and  the  controlling  fact  in  Irish 
history.  None  the  less,  it  is  true  that  few  peo- 
ples are  more  composite  than  the  Irish.  Into 
their  structure  are  built  the  English,  Scotch, 
Welsh,  Danish,  Norwegian,  and  French.  Ex- 
terminating wars,  forced  expatriation,  enlist- 
ment of  more  than  400,000  Irishmen  in  Euro- 
pean armies  during  the  space  of  sixty  years, 
drained  the  native  population.  Colonization, 
many  times  repeated,  brought  in  hosts  of  for- 
eigners, and  must,  of  necessity,  have  disturbed 
the  equilibrium  of  racial  life. 

And  yet,  the  Irishman  has  absorbed  the  blood 
of  them  all  and  appropriated  the  language  of 
his  conquerors,  remaining  all  the  while  a  typical 
Celt — typical  in  habit  of  mind,  disposition,  char- 
acter, and  to  a  great  degree  in  personal  ap- 
pearance. 

Something  in  the  Irish  nature  seemed  to  at- 
tract the  strangers  who  dwelt  in  his  midst. 
During  the  first  four  centuries  after  the  Eng- 
lish conquest  the  English  settlers  of  the  island, 
whether  of  low  or  high  degree,  adopted  Irish 
ways,  intermarried  with  the  Irish,  and  adapted 
their  own  names  to  Irish  forms.  Many  of  the 
Irish  names,  heard  most  often,  can'  be  traced 
back  to  such  a  source.  Nor  did  this  tendency 
entirely  cease,  even  after  the  religious  rancor 
ciieendered  by  the  Protestant  Reformation. 

The  Irish  were  always  religious.  For  six 
hundred  years  their  country  was  known  as 
"The  Isle  of  the  Saints."  '  While  Latinized 
lands  seemed  sinking  back  into  pagan  barba- 
rism, the  Irish  were  founding  schools  and  send- 
ing missionaries  to  Scotland,  England,  Wales, 
and  over  western  Europe.     Saint  Patrick,  who 


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THE    NATIONAL    GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


529 


Christianized  Ireland  by  persuasion,  established 
at  Armagh  a  school  attended  by  seven  thousand 
students.  Saint  Columba  created  at  lona,  in 
the  Hebrides,  monastic  seminaries,  a  strong- 
hold of  Christian  teaching,  thronged  by  foreign 
youth,  who  carried  back  to  less  favored  coun- 
tries this  light  from  the  West. 

The  Irish  Christians,  long  unconnected  with 
Rome,  afterward  became  devout  Catholics. 
The  vigorous  efforts  of  Henry  VIII  and  of 
some  of  his  successors  to  force  Protestantism 
upon  them  only  embittered  resentment.  Had 
the  English  remained  Catholic  or  the  Irish  be- 
come Protestant  the  heat  of  later  difference 
might  have  been  partly  prevented.  The  settle- 
ment of  English  and  Scotch  colonists  in  the 
northeast  corner  of  the  island  further  compli- 
cated the  situation  by  the  introduction  of  a 
hostile  religious  element. 

Of  the  Irish  in  Ireland,  3,243,000,  or  three- 
fourths  of  the  entire  number,  are  Roman  Cath- 
olics. The  more  than  a  million  Protestants  are 
members  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  and  Pres- 
byterian churches. 

The  homeland  of  the  Irish  has  an  area  of 
32,586  square  miles.  How  nearly  one,  geo- 
graphically, are  the  appropriately  called  Em- 
erald Isle  and  Great  Britain  few  persons  ap- 
preciate. The  width  of  the  shallow  North 
Channel,  between  the  Mull  of  Cantire  (Scot- 
land) and  Torr  Head,  is  only  1314  miles.  The 
Irish  Sea,  between  Dublin  and  Holyhead 
(Wales),  is  less  than  70  miles  across,  and  St. 
George's  Channel,  at  the  southern  extremity,  is 
less  than  50  miles  wide. 

Irish,  "the  classic  language  of  the  Celts,"  is 
fast  yielding  place  to  English.  Spoken  in  the 
middle  of  the  last  century  by  more  than  half 
the  people,  it  is  now  spoken  by  less  than  one- 
seventh.  The  population  is  likewise  steadily 
growing  less. 

There  were  a  million  more  inhabitants  in 
Ireland  in  1801  than  there  are  today.  A  very 
careful  census  was  taken  by  the  British  Gov- 
ernment on  the  Act  of  Union  to  determine  the 
number  of  representatives  in  Parliament  to 
which  Ireland  was  entitled  on  a  basis  of  popu- 
lation. The  number  thus  determined  was  made 
permanent,  because  the  government  wanted  the 
Irish  to  feel  that  they  would  never  have  less 
representatives  than  then,  and  also  because  it 
was  believed  that  the  Irish,  being  prolific, 
might  have  in  time  an  inconveniently  large 
number  of  representatives  in  Parliament.  As 
it  turned  out,  however,  at  present  Ireland  has 
one  representative  for  about  every  42,000  people 
and  England  one  for  about  every  70,000  people. 
Scotland,  with  several  hundred  thousand  more 
inhabitants,  has  about  two-thirds  as  many 
members  of  Parliament  as  Ireland. 

"The  claim  of  blood  was  the  strongest  which 
the  ancient  Celt  knew."  There  is  nothing  finer 
or  more  Celtic  than  the  devotion  of  the  Irish 
in  foreign  lands  to  their  kin  at  home. 

The  exuberant  nature,  the  sometimes  flighty 
purpose,  the  impractical  attempt,  the  daring, 
generous  spirit,  the  faithful  and  sympathetic 
nature,  the  courtesy  and  the  quickness,  the  love 


of  poetry  and  song,  mark  alike  the  ancient  and 
the  modern  Celt.  None  but  a  Celtic  soul  would 
liave  chosen  the  harp  as  its  national  emblem. 

THE   BRITISH* 

The  names.  Englishman,  Scotchman,  Welsh- 
man, are  historic,  each  invested  with  precious 
traditions  of  its  own.  ^'ct  each  is  a  local  ap- 
pellation, fitly  associated  with  a  limited  area  in 
an  island  that  itself  is  small.  Because  English- 
men form  the  majority  in  the  island,  the  mis- 
take is  often  made  by  foreigners  of  speaking 
of  the  "English  ambassador,"  "the  English 
army,"  "the  English  navy,"  when  in  fact  there 
IS  no  such  thing.  "The  meteor  flag"  is  not  the 
symbol  of  a  petty  insular  distinction,  but  of  the 
British  race.  In  the  larger  personality  of  the 
Britisher  the  Englishman,  the  Scotchman,  the 
Welshman,  and  many  an  Irishman  are  lost  and 
forgotten. 

THC   WELSH 

The  Welsh  formerly  held  possession  of  all 
the  western  coasts  of  Britain  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Severn  northward  for  three  hundred 
miles.  They  are  now  found  chieflv  in  the 
Principality  of  Wales.  Though  amalgamated 
with  a  farmore  numerous  people,  they  possess 
a  distinct  importance  of  their  own. 

Together  with  the  Bretons  of  Britanny  in 
France  and  the  Cornish,  now  absorbed  in  the 
main  English  body  (the  Cornish  language  has 
been  unspoken  for  over  one  hundred  years), 
they  constitute  the  Brythonic  group,  or  one- 
half  of  the  once  great  Celtic  family.  Brython 
is  the  name  under  which  the  Welsh  include 
themselves  and  the  ancient  Britons. 

in  spite  of  the  marked  revival  of  Welsh 
literary  effort  in  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth 
centuries,  the  Welsh  language  is  steadily  giv- 
ing way  before  the  English.  In  191 1  only  four- 
tenths  of  the  two  million  Welsh  could  speak 
their  Celtic  tongue  at  all.  Thirty  years  earlier 
it  was  in  daily  use  by  seven-tenths  of  their 
people. 

There  was  no  horror  of  invasion,  no  form 
of  resistance,  no  phase  of  alternate  victory 
and  defeat,  which,  from  the  time  of  the  Ro- 
mans, for  centuries  the  Welsh  did  not  undergo. 
Finally  Llewelyn  submitted  to  Edward  I  in 
1277.  The  heir  to  the  English  throne  was  to 
bear  the  title  of  Prince  of  Wales,  and  the 
grandson  of  the  Welshman.  Owen  Tudor,  be- 
come King  of  England  as  Henry  MI  and 
found  the  Tudor  dynasty.     Shortly  afterward 

*  See  also,  in  Nation.m.  Geogr.aphic  "Mac.a- 
ziNE,  "England :  The  Oldest  Nation  of  Eu- 
rope." by  Roland  G.  Usher  (October.  1914)  ; 
"Channel  Ports  and  Some  Others"  (Jul\-, 
1915)  ;  "London."  by  Florence  Craig  Albrecht 
(September.  1915)  ;  "One  Hundred  British  Sea- 
ports"_  (January.  1917)  ;  "What  Great  Britain 
is  Doing."  by  Sydney  Brooks  (March.  19 17), 
and  "What  the  War  Has  Done  for  Britain," 
by  Judson  C.  Welliver  (October,  1918). 


530 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


Wales  was  incorporated  with  England  and 
its  people  have  since  enjoyed  all  English  rights 
and  privileges. 

The  Welsh  inherit  all  the  higher  character- 
istics of  their  indomitable  ancient  ancestry. 
They  are  democratic,  rugged,  serious,  sturdy 
to  obstinacy,  insistent  on  education,  religious 
in  the  highest  sense,  and  uncompromising  in 
defense  of  their  rights.  They  have  given  the 
world  Thomas  Jefferson  in  the  United  States 
and  David  Lloyd  George,  Prime  Minister  of 
tlie  United  Kingdom. 

THE    SCOTCH 

A  peculiar  charm  attaches  to  the  word  Scot- 
land. No  land  is  more  the  synonym  of  poetry 
and  romance.  Its  every  river  and  lake  has 
swelled  with  the  lifetide  of  freedom  and  its 
austere  mountains  are  monuments  of  deeds  as 
imperishable  as  themselves. 

Beyond  conjecture,  no  information  exists  re- 
garding the  origin  of  the  Picts,  its  first  known 
inhabitants,  the  formidable  antagonists  of  the 
Romans.  When  the  Scots,  a  Celtic  Irish  peo- 
ple, arrived,  they  found  the  Picts  in  possession. 
From  the  Scots  the  country,  originally  known 
as  Hibernia,  was  called  Scotland,  while  the 
name  Hibernia  was  transferred  to  Scotia, 
which  Ireland  was  called  from  the  third  to  the 
tenth  century.  Thus,  curiously,  the  two  coun- 
tries exchanged  names. 

The  Scots  and  Picts  combined  in  raids  upon 
the  Britons,  who  implored  the  dangerous  as- 
sistance of  the  Northmen.  Bands  of  other 
Northmen  rushed  in  all  along  the  coast. 
Gradually  two  Englands  emerged ;  one  gen- 
erally corresponding  to  modern  England  as  far 
as  the  Humber  and  one  situated  north  of  the 
Humber  and  extending  far  beyond  the  Tweed. 
Similar  bands  of  invaders,  speaking  a  like 
English  in  the  making,  formed  both  and  were 
mutually  unfriendly  and  suspicious.  The  north- 
ern kingdom  was  persistently  loyal  to  the  Pict- 
ish  kings,  who  themselves  paid  nominal  homage 
to  the  King  of  England. 

The  northern  kingdom,  planted  athwart  the 
middle  of  the  island  and  occupying  its  most 
fertile  and  prosperous  part,  was  inhabited  by  a 
resolute  people  who  were  never  conquered,  not 
even  by  the  Normans.  Its  position  determined 
the  subsequent  events  of  English  and  Scottish 
history.  The  fierce  border  raids,  the  aggres- 
sions of  the  Ivnglish  crf)wn,  and  the  frequent 
wars,  Sir  William  Wallace,  Robert  Bruce,  P.an- 
nockbuni,  and  Elodden,  were  natural  results. 

The  inhabitants  were  early  Christianized,  as 
were  the  Picts,  by  Irish  missionary  monks  who 
acknowledged  no  dei)endence  on  Rome.  Thus 
early  was  imi)arted  that  bent  toward  religious 
independence  and  with  it  that  tendency  toward 
personal  examination  which  have  illustrated 
Scottish  character.  Though  in  lime  they  were 
to  enter  the  Rf)man  comnnmion,  tlure  never 
was  any  change,  either  as  Catholics  or  later  as 
Protestants,  in  the  attitude  of  the  free-thinking 
Scottish  mind. 

The  Highland  Scots  absorbed  the  Picts,  but 


were  harassed  and  weakened  by  repeated  in- 
cursions of  the  Northmen,  who  forced  them 
farther  inland  and  themselves  occupied  all  the 
coasts.  They  peopled  also  the  Shetlands, 
Orkneys,  and  Hebrides.  To  the  northern 
county  of  Scotland,  as  south  of  Norway,  they 
gave  the  name  of  Sutherland,  which  it  still  re- 
tains. Except  in  the  mountain  fastnesses, 
Norse  crowded  out  the  Gaelic  and,  though  no 
longer  spoken,  left  many  place-names  and  me- 
morials of  its  one-time  supremacy. 

The  sharp  division  of  the  Highlands  and 
Lowlands  has  profoundly  affected  the  life  of 
the  country.  Of  different  race  and  language, 
the  inhabitants  of  each  section  long  regarded 
the  other  with  condescension  approaching  dis- 
dain. Both  are  equally  Scotch  in  pride  of  an- 
cestry and  national  feeling.  Both  in  marked 
degree  are  of  composite  racial  stock,  though  in 
the  Highlander  the  Celtic  element  and  in  the 
Lowlander  the  English  element  predominates. 

The  steady  progress  of  the  English  language 
contributes  to  assimilation.  Today  less  than 
one-twentieth  of  the  Scotch  can  speak  Gaelic 
and  only  one-tenth  of  that  twentieth  speak 
Gaelic  only.  In  all  the  Shetland  and  Orkney 
islands,  only  I20  persons  speak  Gaelic  at  all. 
Gaelic  is,  however,  predominant  in  the  fast  de- 
populating Hebrides. 

The  Scotch  in  general  are  thrifty,  cautious, 
and  frugal.  Piut  no  people  are  more  just,  more 
generous,  more  quick  to  imperil  life  or  prop- 
erty or  position  at  the  call  of  duty.  Nowhere 
are  there  more  incisive  minds.  Nowhere  is  the 
reasoning  faculty  more  developed.  A  Scotch 
name  is  significant  of  sterling  qualities  of  heart 
and  character. 

There  is  no  high  place  of  philanthropy, 
statesmanship,  or  world  achievement  that 
Scotchmen  have  not  tilled — Walter  Scott,  Car- 
lyle,  Hume,  John  Knox,  Robert  Louis  Steven- 
son. .Alexander  Graham  Bell,  Watt.  Robert 
Burns,  Gladstone,  Balfour,  Bryce,  Haig,  and 
Beatty. 

THIC   KNGIJSH 

It  is  said  that  the  Arabic  words  in  English 
(such  as  algebra,  alchemy,  coffee,  alcohol,  etc.) 
have  exercised  more  inlluence  on  the  language 
than  all  the  Celtic  words  in  the  vocabulary. 
However,  the  words,  Britam  and  British,  come 
from  the  name  the  Celts  themselves  gave  the 
island.  Names  of  hills  and  rivers  in  England 
and  those  ending  in  ford  (crossing),  ton  or 
don  (farm)  and  ham  (home)  are  almost  all 
Celtic.  Thus  the  Severn,  Dee.  Ouse,  Thames. 
London,  Epsom  (Ebba's  home"),  Horsham 
(  Horsa's  home),  Oxford  (ford  of  the  Ousc) 
are  daily  unheeded  reminders  of  the  Celt. 
Otherwise  Celtic  hardly  exists  in  the  English 
language  and  still  less  in  luiglish  blood. 

Tile  utter  disappearance  from  England  of  the 
race  that  withstood  the  Romans  and  produced 
Boadicea  and  Caractacus  is  surprising.  Prob- 
ably the  sea-kings  were  by  nature  no  more 
cruel  than  the  barbarians  of  the  continent.  But 
the  Celts,  or   Britons,  were  obstinate,  iiumer- 


THE   NATIONAL   CxEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


531 


Phi.t.igraph  l,y  W  iiiiain  Keid 


A    YOUNG    SCOT 


In  the  race  name  "Scotchman"  this  kilt-clad  boy  possesses  a  priceless  heritage,  for  it  is 
synonymous  with  sterling  qualities  of  heart  and  character.  "The  Scotch  in  general  are  thrifty, 
cautious,  and  frugal.  But  no  people  are  more  just,  more  generous,  more  quick  to  imperil  life 
or  property  or  position  at  the  call  of  duty." 


ous,  and  powerful,  while  the  bands  of  sea- 
rovers  were  small,  not  united,  and  in  the  utmost 
peril.  Only  by  terrorism  or  extermination 
could  they  overcome  the  Britons.  Green  states 
that  "when  the  conquest  of  the  bulk  of  Britain 
was  complete,"  one  hundred  and  twenty-eight 
years  after  Hengist  and  Horsa  landed  at  Ebbs- 
fleet,  "not  a  Briton  remained  as  subject  or 
slave"  in  the  conquered  territory. 

According  to  the  Saxon  chronicler,  in  800, 
Egbert,  the  first  king  of  the  country  for  the 
first  time  united,  decreed  it  should  henceforth 
be  called  Anglia,  or  England.  Then  followed 
two  hundred  and  fifty  years,  filled  by  ever 
fresh  invasions  and  by  the  illustrious  names  of 
Alfred  the  Saxon  and  Canute  the  Dane. 

At  last,  on  the  held  of  Hastings  all  those 
racial  elements  were  in  presence  on  which  the 
future  of  England  depended  :  the  English  peo- 
ple with  its  character  forged  by  six  centuries 
of  incessant   and   desperate   struggle;    and   the 


Normans,  no  less  strenuous  and  valiant,  but 
tempered  into  finer  steel  by  two  centuries  of 
residence  in  France.  For  hours  after  the  battle 
was  lost  the  English  fought  on  around  their 
dead  king,  and  for  years  from  retreats  in  the 
forests  and  hills  they  broke  forth  in  fierce, 
hopeless  rebellion. 

Not  until  the  Hundred  Years'  War  with 
France  were  the  English  people  and  the  Nor- 
man conquerors  welded  into  one  and  the 
Norman-French  replaced  by  English  as  the 
language  of  law  and  the  court. 

Crowds  of  later  immigrants,  like  the  fugi- 
tives from  the  Netherlands  and  the  Huguenots 
from  France,  were  to  increase  England's  in- 
dustrial strength,  but  not  to  impair  or  modify 
her  racial  stock  or  character.  It  was  the 
forces  that  clashed  at  Hastings  which,  after 
generations  of  stress  and  struggle,  culminated 
in  the  greatness  of  the  modern  Englishman. 


An  ImikHsIi  ^\y],  Iuts  is  tlir  I.uihu.'ik'-'  •'•  '\\"  luindrcd  millions  of  tlic  world's  inliah- 
itants ;  iur  forcfatlu-rs  were  tlic  dianipions  of  lihcrty,  winninjj  tlu-  Manna  Cliarta  on  (he 
field  of  Rnnnynu'dc;  Iicr  brothers  of  the  liritish  Isles,  of  Xortli  America,  of  Australia,  Xew 
Zealand,  and  .Sonlli  Africa  do  now  and  will  keep  the  faith — defending;  the  weak,  succorinij  tiic 
needy,  maintaining  order,  and  advancing  the  day  of  which  her  i)oet  lanreate  sang: 

"One  Ciod,  one  law,  one  element, 
And  one   f;ir-otT  divine  t'vcnt. 
To  whicli  the   whole  crcatitm   moves." 


532 


THE    NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC    MAGAZINE 


533 


It  is  common  to  speak  of  the  English  as  an 
Anglo-Saxon  people,  though  the  expression  is 
false  and  misleading.  All  Anglo-Saxons  are 
English  but  multitudes  of  the  English  are  not 
Anglo-Saxon.  In  his  ode  to  Alexandra,  Ten- 
nyson strikes  a  truer  note,  "Norman  and 
Saxon  and   Dane  are  we." 

The  main  work  of  the  Saxon  was  accom- 
plished in  the  occupation  and  populating  of 
Greater  Britain.  He  furnished  the  basic  mass 
of  a  vigorous,  resolute,  enduring  people.  The 
Scandinavian,  who  was  Norseman,  or  Norman, 
was  the  most  independent  and  venturesome  of 
all  the  early  makers  of  modern  Europe. 
Through  the  vast  expanse  of  land  and  ocean, 
from  Russia  and  the  Black  Sea  to  remote  Ice- 
land and  Greenland,  there  was  no  region  which 
his  passion  for  discovery  and  conquest  did  not 
attempt.  The  English,  sprung  from  the  loins 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  and  the  Xorman,  inherit 
whatever  was  best  in  their  progenitors. 

Unparalleled  achievements  on  land  and  sea, 
the  building  of  an  Empire  in  comparison  with 
which  the  Roman  Empire  was  small,  creation 
and  development  of  Magna  Charta  and  of 
constitutional  government  and  law  and,  as 
basis  and  compeller  of  such  achievements,  the 
grit  that  brooks  no  defeat,  are  the  contribu- 
tion of  no  single  tribe  or  group  of  ancestors 
but  proceed  from  the  combined  spirit  of  what 
is  enduring  in  them  all.  A  brilliant  French- 
man finds  the  key  to  English  character  in  the 
one  word,  "self-reliance." 

This  war  has  not  created  the  Englishman. 
He  is  no  different  now  from  what  he  was  be- 
fore it  began.  It  has  simply  afforded  fresh 
revelation  to  himself  and  to  us  of  what  he  is: 
Often  arrogant,  but  seldom  vain  ;  fair  in  fight 
and  just  in  victory:  warm-hearted  vmder  a  cold 
demeanor :  fundamentally  conservative  when 
most  radical :  insular  and  narrow,  yet  with  the 
genius  of  world-rule ;  seldom  loved  abroad, 
but  loved  and  lovable  at  home ;  despising 
meanness  and  deceit  and  himself  loval  to  the 
last. 

Were  the  Italians,  the  French,  and  the  Brit- 
ish to  enter  into  comparison,  no  jury  could  be 
found  competent  to  determine  which  stood 
foremost  in  the  products  of  the  intellectual 
life.  There  is,  however,  one  transcendant 
name,  an  English  name,  though  it  seems  not 
so  much  to  belong  to  one  race  as  to  all  races — 
vShakespeare,  the  interpreter  of  humanity,  myr- 
iad-minded, and  of  all  writers  the  most  un- 
translatable and  the  most  easily  understood. 

From  the  British  Isles  the  British  race,  in 
circles  ever  widening,  has  encompassed  the 
earth.  More  than  any  other  race  in  all  the  past, 
it  has  carried  with  it  civilization  and  equal  op- 
portunity and  liberty.  Under  its  protection  in 
the  farthest  continents  and  seas  its  offspring 
have  erected  self-governing  Dominions  and 
Commonwealths,  whose  proudest  inheritance  is 
their  British  lineage  and  their  British  loyalty.* 

*  See  also,  in  the  N.\tiox.\l  Geographic 
Magazine,  "Great  Britain's  Bread  Upon  the 
Waters,"  by  ex-President  William  H.  Taft 
(March,  1916). 


THE    ENGLISH-SPEAKING    PEOPLES 

Its  medium  of  communication  is  the  English 
language,  spoken  by  well-nigh  200,000,000  per- 
sons as  their  mother  tongue.  Those  200,000,000 
as  a  body  are  the  most  enterprising,  most 
wealthy,  most  intelligent  in  the  world.  No 
other  language,  even  in  China  or  Hindustan, 
is  spoken  by  half  as  many. 

Beside  the  enormous  host  of  whom  it  is  the 
birthright,  its  diffusion  among  other  millions  is 
rapidly  increasing.  One  is  startled  as  he  hears 
it  in  the  commands  on  Eastern  steamers,  or  in 
interviews  between  foreign  magnates,  or  in 
remote  villages  where  presumably  no  British 
person  has  ever  been. 

In  the  heritage  of  that  well-nigh  universal 
language  the  American  has  his  share.  In  the 
bonds  and  sympathies  created  by  it  he  finds  his 
kith  and  kin. 

Eloquently  were  these  inheritances  recalled 
by  the  modest  gentleman  who  presides  over  the 
British  Dominions,  in  his  address  welcoming  to 
Great  Britain  the  President  of  the  United 
States: 

"We  welcome  vou  to  the  country  whence  came 
your  ancestors  and  where  stand  the  homes  of 
those  from  whom  sprang  Washington  and  Lin- 
coln. .  .  .  You  come  as  the  official  head  and 
spokesman  of  a  mighty  Commonwealth  bound 
to  us  by  the  closest  ties.  Its  people  speak  the 
tongue  of  Shakespeare  and  Milton.  Our  litera- 
ture is  yours,  as  yours  is  also  ours,  and  men  of 
letters  in  both  countries  have  joined  in  main- 
taining its  incomparable  glories. 

"To  you,  not  less  than  to  us,  belong  the  memo- 
ries of  our  national  heroes  from  King,  Alfred 
down  to  the  days  of  Philip  Sydney  and  Drake, 
of  Raleigh  and  Blake,  and  Hampden,  and  the 
days  when  the  political  life  of  the  English  stock 
in  America  was  just  beginning.  You  share  with 
us  the  traditions  of  free  self-government  as  old 
as  the  ]\Iagna  Charta. 

'"We  recognize  the  bond  of  still  deeper  signifi- 
cance in  the  common  ideals  which  our  people 
cherish.  First  among  those  ideals  you  value 
and  we  value  freedom  and  peace.  Privileged 
as  we  have  been  to  be  the  exponents  and  the 
examples  in  national  life  of  the  principles  of 
popular  self-government  based  upon  equal  laws, 
it  now  falls  to  both  of  us  alike  to  see  how  these 
principles  can  be  applied  beyond  our  own  bor- 
ders for  the  good  of  the  world." 

In  the  goodly  fellowship  of  the  Entente 
Allies,  British  and  Americans,  for  the  first 
time  in  all  their  history,  have  bared  their 
breasts  side  by  side  against  a  common  foe. 
They  have  bled  together  as  champions  of  those 
who  cherish  their  own  individual  rights  and 
respect  the  rights  of  mankind.  No  formal 
parchment,  however  drawn  up  and  signed, 
could  further  strengthen  and  hallow  such  alli- 
ance of  heart  and  purpose. 

As  General  Pershing  has  well  snid  in  his  re- 
port after  the  conclusion  of  hostilities,  "Alto- 
gether it  has  been  deeply  impressed  on  us  that 
the  ties  of  language  and 'blood  bring  the  British 
and  ourselves  together  completelv  and  insep- 
arably." 


•c  z  z  x  —  —  r 


z  —  I-  r.  X  M 


X  •/.  y.  X  •/.  f.  •/.  •/. 


W)  -t  f  1  «  C.  1.1  re  o  s  c:  .-I  O  I-  C". 
c!  W   W   -»<   f   •*   I 


>    ^'^ 3.2.  o  o  o 


j^'  o  i'ni;  3  o  is  5  J' =  S 


>>     US,  O 


■3  r-t   a 
=  "7  5 


-,  o  c.  c:  o  00  c;  o  ■* 


•   1-1  C5   O   ?C   ■»*•  W   M  t- 

iiH(r.(»o«oo«oc5 


=     S' 


,^>       w  c»  ac  00  OD  o  =  rc  o  cc 


4<  I-  M  C   00  a   tl 

tu  I-  r:  -^  i>  X  Ti 


M   CS    «    I-    ^   «    CO 

ri  «■!  •-  ■*  cc  ri  o 

L-5  w  ■■»<  ■<»«  o  »a  ■'T 


-y.     3    J3     a     C8 

Hill 


534 


OUR    MAP   OF   THE    RACES    OF   EUROPE 


THE  map  accompanying  this  arti- 
cle, printed  in  19  colors,  gives  a 
comprehensive  picture  of  the  gen- 
eral divisions  of  the  races  of  Europe.  In- 
stead of  employing  colors  merely  to 
represent  definitive  ethnographic  and  lin- 
guistic territories,  an  effort  has  been  made 
to  enable  the  student  to  determine  the 
racial  affinities  of  distinctive  groups  by 
the  relation  of  the  shades  of  color  them- 
selves (for  index  see  opposite  page). 

The  four  great  trunk  branches  of  the 
'Indo-European,  or  Aryan,  race  are  pre- 
sented in  four  basic  colors — brown  for 
the  Greco-Latins ;  yellow  for  the  Celts ; 
red  for  the  Teutons,  and  green  for  the 
Slavs.  The  Greco  -  Latin  subdivisions 
(Albanians,  Greeks,  Italians,  Spaniards, 
Portuguese,  French,  Walloons,  and  Ru- 
manians) are  distinguished  one  from  the 
other  by  the  intensity  of  the  brown 
shades.  Likewise,  the  eleven  families  of 
common  Teuton  stock  are  represented  by 
three  shades  of  red.  The  great  Slav 
group,  with  its  eastern,  southern,  west- 
ern, and  Baltic  subdivisions,  is  shown  in 
green  of  varying  shades. 

The  Basques,  Pre- Aryan  Caucasian 
people,  are  represented  by  blue,  and  their 
complete  detachment  from  other  races  of 
Europe  is  emphasized  by  the  fact  that  no 
gradations  of  blue  are  used  to  indicate 
the  territorial  bounds  of  any  other  people. 

The  purple  patches  which  clutter  the 
face  of  Europe  signify  the  presence  of 
the  Ural-Altaians ;  the  dark  purple  in- 
dicating the  Turks,  Tatars,  and  Kal- 
mucks ;  the  lavender  marking  the  bounds 
of  Magyar  dominance,  and  the  pale  lav- 
ender showing  the  territory  inhabited 
by  the  Finno-Ugrian  Finns,  Esths,  and 
Lapps  (see  also  page  448). 

The  land  of  the  Armenians  in  Asia  is 
represented  by  diagonal  rectangles  in  a 
shade  between  the  green  of  the  Slavs  and 
the  yellow  of  the  Celts. 

ARUAS   WHERE   CONTIGUOUS  RACES 
INTERMINGLE 

Hatchwork,  of  course,  indicates  areas 
where  the  contiguous   races   intermingle 


inseparably,  as  in  northern  and  north- 
eastern Italy,  where  German  and  Italian 
reside  side  by  side;  in  western  Ireland, 
Scotland,  and  Wales,  where  the  Celts  and 
the  British  mingle ;  in  eastern  Poland, 
where  the  Western  Slavs  (Poles)  and 
the  Eastern  Slavs  (Little  Russians)  re- 
side together ;  on  the  border  between 
eastern  Lithuania  and  western  Great 
Russian  territory ;  and  where  Magyars, 
Tatars,  Finns,  and  Slavs  form  confused 
racial  masses  throughout  the  dominion  of 
European  Russia. 

This  map  represents  a  unique  achieve- 
ment in  its  unusual  legibility,  in  its  sharp 
definition  of  political  as  well  as  racial 
boundaries,  shorelines  and  rivers,  the 
clarity  of  its  color  key,  and,  withal,  in  the 
convenience  of  its  size.  A  map  of  twice 
these  dimensions  would  not  show  in 
greater  detail  any  facts  of  importance, 
whereas  this  supplement  enables  the 
reader  to  study  it  closely  as  a  whole  in- 
stead of  by  sections. 

An  interesting  feature  of  the  map  is 
the  accuracy  with  which  the  racial  islands 
are  revealed,  set  amid  seas  of  alien  peo- 
ples. For  example,  it  is  important  to 
note  the  two  groups  of  German  colonists 
set  down  in  the  midst  of  the  mingled 
Little  Russians  and  Rumanians  in  Bessa- 
rabia. 

An  important  colony  of  Germans  is 
also  shown  just  to  the  north  of  Fiume. 
Close  students  of  events  in  Europe  during 
the  last  few  weeks  will  recall  that  shortly 
after  the  signing  of  the  armistice  these 
Germans,  entirely  surrounded  by  Jugo- 
slavs, announced  that  they  would  peti- 
tion the  Powers  to  permit  them  to  set  up 
a  separate  autonomous  State,  fashioned 
after  the  miniature  republics  of  San 
Marino  and  Andorra. 

The  colors  of  this  map  show  at  once 
how  extraordinary  is  such  an  appeal ;  for 
whereas  the  San  Marinesi  are  the  racial 
brothers  of  the  Italians  who  surround 
them,  and  the  Andorrans  are  similarly  of 
the  same  blood  and  language  as  the  Span- 
iards who  encircle  them,  the  red  of  this 
Teuton  colony  is  seen  to  be  in  clashing 


535 


m 


THE   NATIONAL   GEOGRAPHIC   MAGAZINE 


disharmony  with  the  dominant  green  of 
the  encompassing  South  Slavs.  In  other 
words,  the  colors  tell  their  own  story  of 
the  kinship  of  the  races  which  they  sym- 
bolize. 


A    MONOGRAPH    OF    PERMANENT    EDUCA- 
TIONAL  VALUE 

Dr.  Grosvenor's  text,  which  elaborates 
the  facts  set  forth  in  such  graphic  form 
by  the  map.  constitutes,  with  the  scores 
of  illustrations,  a  monograph  of  perma- 
nent educational  value  and  ever-recurrent 
human  interest.  The  entire  mmiber  is 
a  htting  contribution  to  the  important 
monographic  library  which  the  National 
Geographic  Society  is  gradually  creating 
for  its  members  by  issuing  in  magazine 
form  such  noteworthy  numbers  as  "Flags 
of  the  World,"  the  Larger  Mammals  of 
North  America,  the  Smaller  Mammals  of 
North  America.  "The  Land  of  the  Best" 
(a  bird's-eye  view  in  text  and  pictures 
of  the  resources  and  advantages  of  Amer- 
ica), and  several  numbers  devoted  to 
American  birds. 

"The  Races  of  Europe"  not  only  pro- 
vides' material  of  fascinating  interest  to 
the  casual  reader,  but  contains  the  au- 
thoritative groundwork  for  the  student  of 
the  most  intricate  and  at  the  present  time 
the  most  vital  problem  which  diploma- 
tists, statesmen,  and  humanitarians  have 
set  themselves  to  solve. 

It  is  confidently  believed  that  this  num- 
ber of  the  Gkograpiiic  will  i)rove  a  work 
of  lasting  value;  for  however  political 
boundaries  in  Tuiro])c  may  be  changed  by 
treaties  or  by  conquest,  and  however  cth- 
nogra]ihic  delimitations  may  be  affected 
by  migration  and  immigration,  raciah 
characteristics  and  traits  are  fairly  con- 
stant from  generation  to  generation  and 
are  materially  modified  only  through  the 
centuries. 

EAKi.iKR  r,i;or,u.\pinc  .Mrrici<ES  having 

I<  ACI  \r,    SIGNIEICANCK 

For  the  convenience  of  those  readers 
of  the  Geogkapfiic  who  preserve  their 
fdes.  footnotes  have  been  added  under  the 
various  race  headings  in  order  that  more 
detailed  i)resentations  of  i)eoples  and  lo- 


calities, described  in  earlier  issues  of  the 
magazine,  may  be  used  for  reference. 

In  addition  to  the  articles  thus  enu- 
merated, those  who  find  the  races  of  Eu- 
rope a  subject  of  engrossing  interest  will 
derive  pleasure  and  proht  from  reading 
again  such  authoritative  and  entertaining 
articles  as  Col.  Theodore  Roosevelt's 
"I  low  Old  Is  Man?"  (February,  1916)  ; 
"The  Sea-kings  of  Crete,"  by  the  Rev. 
James  Baikie  (January,  1912)  ;  "F'rom 
Jerusalem  to  Aleppo,"  by  John  D.  Whit- 
ing (January.  191 3)  ;  "Megaspekneon.  the 
Oldest  ^Monastery  in  Greece,"  by  Carroll 
Storrs  Alden  (]\larch.  191 3)  ;  "The  Res- 
urrection of  Ancient  Egypt,"  by  the  Rev. 
James  Baikie  (September.  191 3)  ;  "Vil- 
lage Life  in  the  Holy  Land,"  by  John  D. 
Whiting  (  March,  1914)  ;  "Where  Adam 
and  Eve  Lived,"  by  Frederick  and  Mar- 
garet Simpich  (December,  1914)  ;  "Im- 
pressions of  Palestine."  by  Viscount 
James  Bryce  (March,  191 5)  ;  "The  Gates 
to  the  Black  Sea,"  by  Harry  Griswold 
Dwight.  and  "Homer's  Troy  Today,"  by 
Jacob  E.  Conner  (  May,  191 5)  ;  "Venice." 
l)y  Karl  Stieler  (June.  191 5)  ;  "Historic 
Islands  and  Shores  of  the  .Egean  Sea," 
by    Ernest    Lloyd    Harris     (September, 

1915)  ;  "The  Cradle  of  Civilization."  an 
account  of  Mesopotamia,  by  the  Rev. 
James  Baikie.  and  "Pushing  Back  His- 
tory's Horizon."  an  account  of  archae- 
ological explorations  in  Assvria  and  Baby- 
lonia,   bv    Albert    T.    Clay     (February. 

1 91 6)  ;  "The  Hoary  Monasteries  of  Mt. 
Athos."  by  H.  G.' Dwight  (September. 
1916)  ;  "Lonely  Au.stralia."  by  Herbert 
E.  Gregory  (December.  1916)  ;  "Our  For- 
eign-born Citizens"  (February.  1917)  ; 
"On  the  Monastir  Road,"  a  war-time  pic- 
ture of  Macedonia,  by  Herbert  Corey 
( .May.  191 7)  :  "Euro])ean  Famines  of  the 
Past."  by  Ralph  Graves,  and  "Letters 
from  the  Italian  Front."  by  iCthel  M. 
I^''igg  (July.  1917)  ;  ".Andorra,  a  Tniciue 
Re])ul)lic  in  the  Pyrenees."  by  Herbert 
Corev  (March.  1918).  and  "I'nder  tlu- 
Heel  of  the  Turk."  bv  William  II.  I  Kill 
(July.  i(;i8). 

b'xtra  copies  of  this  "K.ices  of  lun-oiu'" 
number,  including  the  Map.  may  be  ob- 
t.iined  from  the  office  of  the  National 
Geographic  Society  at  fifty  cents  each. 


7  DAY  USE 

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ANTHROPOLOGY  LIDRARY 

This  publication  is  due  on  the  LAST  DATE 
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